Most of the inhabitants of Anguilla are descendants of black Africans, who were brought to the region to work as plantation slaves during the early colonial period. A dependency of the United Kingdom. Anguilla has a majority language of English, and the main religion is Anglican. The Valley, a village area, serves as a capital, and most Anguillans live in rural communities scattered over the island. Many people are poor, and fewer than one-tenth of the population has a telephone.
#
Many Anguillans work as subsistence farmers, although only 5 percent of the land is cultivatable; soils are poor and rainfall low and unpredictable. Some people raise livestock such as cattle and goats, which they trade with inhabitants of nearby islands. Other activities include fishing, lobstering, producing seal salt, and boat building. Jobs have been scarce, however, and this has led to a high rate of emigration. A large portion of the population's income comes from money former inhabitants send home. Tourism is an economic contributor and offers potential for expansion. Amenities include a warm climate, tempered by trade winds, and more than thirty white-coral beaches, but hotel facilities and air transportation need to be expanded. In the late 1970s, the government established a plan to build new hotels, and despite setbacks, the plan is beginning to come to fruition. Some development has taken place along Rendezvous Bay on the southern coast. Other sectors with potential for economic expansion include light industry and offshore banking, with the island's lack of income tax as incentive. But growth in these areas as well as tourism will continue to depend upon economic aid. Anguilla is a low-lying coral island, with a mostly flat, scrub-covered terrain. Uninhabited Dogs Island lies off the east coast, Scrub Island off the northeast, and tiny Anguillita off the southwestern tip. Anguilla has a tropical climate, subject to occasional hurricanes.
^
Artifacts of an Indian culture dating back to around 100 B.C. and petroglyphs in the Fountain, a cave currently under excavation, are reminders of Anguilla's ancient history. The island's early inhabitants were probably the Arawak Indians, who were most likely conquered by the more aggressive Caribs. In 1493, Christopher Columbus arrived on the island, naming it Anguilla, Spanish for "eel," because of its long, narrow shape, Anguilla became a British colony in 1650, and in 1796 the French landed at Rendezvous Bay in an unsuccessful attempt to take the island from Britain. In 1882, Britain united Anguilla with St. Christopher and Nevis, and subsequent years saw St. Christopher, Nevis, and Anguilla administered as a single colony. Many Anguillans rebelled against this status, and dissatisfaction led to unilateral secession from the state in 1967 and British military intervention in 1969. The Anguilla Act of 1980 formally established Anguilla as a separate dependency of Britain, although the de facto separation had been in effect for some time. A new constitution became effective in 1982, and Anguilla continues to be governed by an appointee of the Crown.
~
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
@
Most Antiguans are descendants of black African slaves brought by the British to work sugarcane plantations. The largest urban area is St. John's, but most Antiguans live in rural areas. British rule has left its imprint; most people are Protestant and speak English.
#
The dry, tropical climate and white-sand beaches attract many visitors, making tourism the economic mainstay. Once dependent on sugar cultivation, the nation has shifted to a multicrop agriculture. The country is composed of three islands: Antigua, Barbuda, and uninhabited Redondo. Formed by volcanos, the low-lying islands are flat.
^
The original inhabitants of Antigua and Barbuda were the Carib Indians. Columbus arrived at Antigua in 1493, and after unsuccessful Spanish and French attempts at colonization, the British began settlement in the 1600s. The country remained a British colony until 1967, when it became an associated state of the United Kingdom. Antigua gained independence in 1981.
~
ARUBA
@
Aruba's population combines descendants of the original Indian population, black Africans, Spanish invaders, and Dutch settlers. Spoken and understood almost universally here are Dutch, English, Spanish, and Paplamento -- a language that combines elements of Spanish, Portuguese, English, and Dutch with Indian words.
#
Aruba is dry with soils unsuited for agriculture, and for many years the economy did not show much potential for development. In the twentieth century, however, nearby Venezuela began producing crude oil, and companies were attracted to Aruba as an economical and stable site to establish a refinery center. The refinery complex is now a major employer. Tourism, too, has grown, with visitors attracted by the coral reefs, white-sand beaches, and tropical climate moderated by trade winds. Aruba's land is dry and rocky, and scattered over the island are giant boulders and monoliths.
^
Early in Aruba's history, the Caribs replaced the peaceful Arawak Indians, and caves on the peaceful Arawak signs and symbols of these early peoples. In 1499, some time after the first arrival of the Spanish, the island was claimed for the Spanish Crown. Aruba was a center of activity for pirates until the 1600s, when the Netherlands obtained possession after long years of war with the Spanish. For a brief time during the Napoleonic Wars, the British occupied Aruba, but the island remained in Dutch hands. Until the 1980s, Aruba was part of the Netherlands Antilles, two groups of West Indies islands that belong to the Netherlands. A current plan calls for complete independence in 1996.
~
BAHAMAS
@
Only about 29 of the 700 Bahamian islands are inhabited, and most of the people live on Grand Bahama and New Providence. The majority blacks are mainly descendants of slaves routed through the area or brought by British Loyalists fleeing the American colonies during the revolutionary war.
#
Because the thin soils of these flat coral islands are not suited for agriculture, for years the country struggled to develop a strong economic base. The solution was tourism, which capitalizes on the islands' most valuable resource--a semitropical climate. Because it is a tax haven, the country is also an international finance center.
^
Christopher Columbus's first stop on his way to America in 1492, the Bahamas were originally the home of the Lucayo Indians, whom the Spaniards took for slave trade. The British arrived in the 1600s, and the islands became a British colony in 1717. Independence was achieved in 1973.
~
BARBADOS
@
A history of British rule is reflected in the Anglican religion and English language of this easternmost West Indian island. It is one of the world's most densely populated countries, and most citizens are black descendants of African slaves.
#
Barbados's pleasant tropical climate and its land have determined its economic mainstays: tourism and sugar. Sunshine and year-round warmth attract thousands of visitors and, in conjunction with the soil, provide an excellent environment for sugar cane cultivation. Manufacturing consists mainly of sugar processing. The coral island's terrain is mostly flat, rising to a central ridge.
^
Originally settled by South American Arawak Indians, followed by Carib Indians, Barbados was uninhabited when the first British settlers arrived in the 1600s. More colonists followed, developing sugar plantations and bringing slaves from Africa to work them. The country remained under British control until it became independent in 1966.
~
BELIZE
@
With the lowest population of any Central American country, Belize has a mixed populace, including descendants of black Africans, mestizos of Spanish-Indian ancestry, and Indians. Population is concentrated in six urban areas along the coast. Most people are poor, but participation in the educational system has led to a high literacy rate.
#
An abundance of timberland resulted in an economy based on forestry until woodlands began to be depleted in the twentieth century. Today the economy focuses on agriculture, with sugar the major crop and export. Arable land is the primary resource, but only a small portion has been cultivated. Industrial activity is limited. The recipient of much foreign aid, Belize hopes to expand export of agricultural surpluses and to develop a tourist industry based on its climate and sandy beaches. The coastal region consists of swampy lowlands rising to the Maya Mountains inland. The hot, humid climate is offset by sea breezes.
^
Until about the eleventh century A.D., Belize was the site of a flourishing Mayan civilization. Spain claimed the region in the sixteenth century. A British shipwreck in 1638 resulted in the first European settlement and began a process of British colonization, accompanied by extensive logging, piracy, and occasional Spanish and Indian attacks. In 1862 the area officially became the crown colony of British Honduras. Its name was changed to Belize in 1973, and independence was achieved in 1981. To assist economic and political development, Belize seeks closer relations with Spanish-speaking Central American countries and English-speaking Caribbean states.
~
BERMUDA
@
The population of this British colony is mainly black descendants of African slaves, but also includes Portuguese, British, Canadian, Caribbean peoples, and some United States military staff.
#
A mild climate, beautiful beaches, and a scenic, hilly terrain make tourism Bermuda's economic mainstay. Foreign businesses, attracted by tax exemptions, provide additional economic contributions. There is limited light manufacturing, agriculture, and fishing, and no heavy industry. Situated about 650 miles (1,046 km) east of North Carolina in the United States, the archipelago consists of many small islands and islets. About twenty are inhabited, several of which are connected by bridges and collectively known as the Island of Bermuda.
^
The colony received its name from Juan de Bermudez, a Spanish explorer who sailed past the islands in 1503, not landing because of the dangerous coral reefs. Colonization began following a British shipwreck in 1609. Racial inequality resulted in unrest in the late 1960s and 1970s. As a British colony, Bermuda recognizes Great Britain's queen as the head of state.
~
CANADA
@
Canada was greatly influenced by French and British rule, and its culture reflects this dual nature. Descendants of British and French settlers compose the two main population groups, and languages include both English and French. French-speaking inhabitants, called Quebecois, are concentrated in the Province of Quebec. Minorities include descendants of various European groups, indigenous Indians, and Inuit. Because of the rugged terrain and harsh climate of northern Canada, population is concentrated near the United States border.
#
Rich natural resources--including extensive mineral deposits, fertile land, forests, and lakes--helped shape Canada's diversified economy, which ranks among the world's most prosperous. Economic problems are those common to most modern industrial nations. Agriculture, mining, and industry are highly developed. Canada is a major wheat producer; mineral output includes asbestos, zinc, silver, and nickel; and crude petroleum is an important export. The service sector is also active. Second only to the Soviet Union in land area, Canada has a terrain that varies from eastern rolling hills and plains to mountains in the west. The Canadian Shield consists of ancient rock and extends from Labrador to the Arctic Islands. It is covered by thick forests in the south and tundra in the north. Overall, summers are moderate and winters long and cold.
^
Canada's first inhabitants were Asian Indians and Inuit, an Arctic people. Around the year 1000, Vikings were the first Europeans to reach North America, and in 1497 John Cabot claimed the Newfoundland coastal area for Britain. Jacques Cartier established French claim when he landed at the Gaspe Peninsula in the 1500s. Subsequent French and British rivalry culminated in several wars during the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The wars ended with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, by which France lost Canada and other North American territory to Britain. To aid in resolving the continued conflict between French and English residents, the British North America Act of 1867 united the colonies into the Dominion of Canada. Canada fought on the side of the British during World War I. In 1926, along with other dominions, Canada declared itself an independent member of the British Commonwealth, and in 1931 Britain recognized the declaration through the Statute of Westminster. Canada once again allied itself with Britain during World War II. In 1988, Canada saw vigorous debate over a free trade pact with the United States, which narrowly won approval. The Quebec separatist movement is striving for independent status for French-speaking Quebec.
~
CAYMAN ISLANDS
@
The population of the Caymans combines descendants of African Slaves, Jamaican and North American immigrants, and people of European ancestry. Most live on Grand Cayman Island. The standard of living is relatively high, mainly because of the proliferation of offshore banking.
#
In the 1960s, the government created a board of tourism and established tax laws favorable to financial services, and today tourism and banking are the economic leaders. Fishing, especially for turtles, also contributes to the economy. The Caymans consist of the coral islands of Grand Cayman, the largest and most populated; Little Cayman; and Cayman Brac. The climate is tropical, with cooling trade winds.
^
Christopher Columbus arrived at the Cayman Islands in 1503. In 1670, Spain ceded the Caymans and Jamaica to Britain. True settlement began in 1734 on Grand Cayman, and Cayman Brac and Little Cayman were settled in 1833. In 1959, administration of the Cayman Islands were separated from that of Jamaica, but the Cayman Islands remained under British rule. A governor appointed by the British Crown is head of government.
~
COSTA RICA
@
Compared with most other Central American countries, Costa Rica has a relatively large population of European descent, mostly Spanish with minorities of German, Dutch, and Swiss ancestry. Together with mestizos, people of Spanish-Indian heritage, they compose the bulk of the population. Descendants of black Jamaican immigrants inhabit mainly the Caribbean coastal region. Indigenous Indians in scattered enclaves continue traditional lifestyles; some, however, have been assimilated into the country's majority culture.
#
Costa Rica's economy, one of the most prosperous in Central America, has not been without problems, some resulting from falling coffee prices and rising oil costs. Agriculture remains important, producing traditional coffee and banana crops, while the country attempts to expand industry. Population and agriculture are concentrated in the central highlands. Much of the country is forested, and the mountainous central area is bordered by coastal plains on the east and west. The climate is semitropical to tropical.
^
In 1502 Christopher Columbus arrived and claimed the area for Spain. Spaniards named the region Rich Coast, and settlers soon flocked to the new land to seek their fortune. Rather than riches, they found an Indian population unwilling to surrender its land. But many Spaniards remained, establishing farms in the central area. In 1821 the Central American provinces of Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua declared themselves independent from Spain, and by 1823 they had formed the Federation of Central America. Despite efforts to sustain it, the federation was in a state of virtual collapse by 1838, and Costa Rica became an independent republic. Since the first free elections in 1889, Costa Rica has experienced a presidential overthrow in 1919 and a civil war in 1948, which arose over a disputed election. In the 1980s the country worked to promote peaceful solutions to armed conflicts in the region.
~
CUBA
@
Most Cubans are descendants of Spanish colonists, African slaves, or a blend of the two. The government provides free education and health care, and although religious practices are discouraged, most people belong to the Roman Catholic church. Personal income, health, education, and housing have improved since the 1959 revolution, but most food products and consumer goods remain in short supply.
#
Cuba's economy is largely dependent on sugar, although other forms of agriculture are also important. The most fertile soils lie in the central region between mountain ranges, while mineral deposits, including oil and nickel, are found in the northeast. In addition to agriculture and mining, industry is an economic contributor. Most economic activity is nationalized, and Cuba remains dependent on aid from the Soviet Union. Mountains, plains, and a scenic coastline make Cuba one of the most beautiful islands in the West Indies. The climate is tropical.
^
Christopher Columbus claimed Cuba for Spain in 1492, and Spanish settlement began in 1511. When the native Indian population died out, African slaves were brought to work plantations. The United States joined with Cuba against Spain in the Spanish-American War in 1898. Cuba gained full independence in 1902. Unrest continued, however, and the United States again intervened from 1906 to 1909 and in 1917. A 1933 coup ousted a nine-year dictatorship, and a subsequent government overthrow in 1934 ushered in an era dominated by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista. After ruling through other presidents and serving an elected term himself, Batista seized power in a 1952 coup that established an unpopular and oppressive regime. Led by lawyer Fidel Castro, a revolutionary group opposed to Batista gained quick support, and Batista fled the country on January 1, 1959, leaving the government to Castro. Early United States support of Castro soured when nationalization of American businesses began. American aid soon ceased, and Cuba looked to the Soviet Union for assistance. The United States ended diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961. In 1962 the United States and the Soviet Union became embroiled in a dispute over Soviet missile bases in Cuba that ended with removal of the missiles. In the early 1980s more than one hundred thousand Cubans were allowed to emigrate to the United States. The nation maintains ties with the Soviet Union and has sent aid to several Third World countries.
~
DOMINICA
@
Dominica's population consists of descendants of black Africans, brought to the island as slaves, and Carib Indians descended from early inhabitants. The Carib population is concentrated in the northeastern part of the island and maintains its own customs and lifestyle. English is widely spoken in urban areas, but villagers, who compose a majority, speak mainly a French-African blend, resulting from French rule and the importation of Africans.
#
Of volcanic origin, the island has soils suitable for farming, but a mountainous and densely-forested terrain limits land accessible to cultivation. Agriculture is the economic mainstay, although hurricanes have hindered production. Forestry and fishing offer potential for expansion, and a tropical climate and scenic landscape create a basis for tourism.
^
In the fourteenth century Carib Indians conquered the Arawak who originally inhabited the island. Although Christopher Columbus arrived at Dominica in 1493, Spanish settlement was discouraged by Carib hostilities. French and British rivalry for control of the island followed, and British possession was recognized in 1783. Dominica gained independence in 1978.
~
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
@
Occupying eastern Hispaniola Island, the Dominican Republic borders Haiti and has a population of mixed ancestry. Haitians, other blacks, Spaniards, and European Jews compose minority groups. Population growth has resulted in unemployment and made it difficult for the government to meet food and service needs.
#
Agriculture remains important, with sugar a main component of trade, and sugar refining a major manufacturing activity. Farmland is limited, however, by a northwest-to-southeast mountain range and an arid region west of the range. Mineral exploitation and iron and steel exports contribute to trade, and a number of American firms have subsidiaries here. Tourism is growing, aided by the warm, tropical climate.
^
In 1492 Christopher Columbus arrived at Hispaniola Island. Spanish colonists followed, and the Indian population was virtually wiped out, although some intermingling with Spanish probably occurred. In 1697 the western region of the island, which would become Haiti, was ceded to France. The entire island came under Haitian control as the Republic of Haiti in 1822, and an 1844 revolution established the independent Dominican Republic. Since independence the country has experienced periods of instability, evidenced by military coups and rule, United States military intervention and occupation, and human-rights abuses. Economic instability continues as the government attempts to diversify the economy and lessen dependence on the export of sugar.
~
EL SALVADOR
@
Most Salvadorans are Spanish-speaking mestizos, people of Spanish-Indian descent. An Indian minority is mainly descended from the Pipil, a Nahuatl group related to the Aztecs. The Nahuatl dialect is still spoken among some Indians. El Salvador, the smallest Central American country in area, has the highest population density in mainland Latin America, with inhabitants concentrated in a central valley-and-plateau region.
#
El Salvador's economy has been plagued by political instability, low literacy, high population density, and high unemployment. Agriculture remains the economic mainstay, and most arable land has been cultivated. Coffee, cotton, and sugar are produced on large commercial plantations, while subsistence farmers rely on corn, bean, and sorghum crops. East-to-west mountain ranges divide El Salvador into a southern coastal region, central valleys and plateaus, and northern mountains. The climate is subtropical.
^
Maya and Pipil predominated in the area of El Salvador prior to Spanish arrival. In the 1500s Pipil defeated invading Spaniards but were conquered in a subsequent invasion. In 1821 the Spanish-controlled Central American colonies declared independence, and in 1823 they united as the Federation of Central America. By 1838 the problem-ridden federation was in a state of collapse, and as the union dissolved, El Salvador became independent. Instability and revolution soon followed. The expansion of the coffee economy in the late 1800s exacerbated problems by further concentrating wealth and power among large-estate holders. A dictatorship from 1931 to 1944 was followed by instability under various military rulers. In 1969 a brief war with Honduras arose from resentment toward land-ownership laws, border disputes, and nationalistic feelings following a series of soccer games between the two countries. Discontent increased throughout the seventies until a civil war erupted between leftist guerrillas and government forces, accompanied by right-wing death squads and human-rights abuses by the government. During the 1980s, the United States provided extensive military and economic aid in an attempt to moderate the government. However, the election of rightist Alfredo Cristiani in 1989 escalated guerrilla activity.
~
GREENLAND
@
Most Greenlanders are native-born descendants of mixed Inuit-Danish ancestry. Lutheranism, the predominant religion, reflects Danish ties. Descended from an indigenous Arctic people, pure Inuit are a minority and usually follow traditional lifestyles. Most of the island lies within the Arctic Circle, and population is concentrated along the southern coast.
#
Fishing is the state's economic backbone. Despite a difficult arctic environment, mining of zinc and lead continues; but iron, coal, uranium, and molybdenum deposits remain undeveloped. The largest island in the world, Greenland is composed of an inland plateau, coastal mountains and fjords, and offshore islands. More than 80 percent of the island lies under permanent ice cap. Greenland is situated in the""Land of the Midnight Sun,'' and certain areas have twenty-four consecutive hours of daylight in summer and darkness in winter. The climate is cold, with warmer temperatures and more precipitation in the southwest.
^
Following early migration of Arctic Inuit, Norwegian Vikings sighted Greenland in the ninth century, and in the tenth century Erik the Red brought the first settlers from Iceland. Greenland united with Norway in the 1200s, and the two regions, along with several others, came under Danish rule in the 1300s. Denmark retained control of Greenland when Norway left the union in 1814. American troops defended the island during World War II. In 1953 the island became a province of Denmark and in 1979 it gained home rule.
~
GRENADA
@
Grenada's culture bears the influences of former British and French rule. The most widely spoken language is English, although a French patois is also spoken, and the majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Most Grenadians are black, descended from African slaves brought to the island by the British, but there are small East Indian and European populations.
#
Rich volcanic soils and heavy rainfall have made agriculture the chief economic activity. Also known as the Isle of Spice, Grenada is one of the world's leading producers of nutmeg and mace. Many tropical fruits are also raised, and the small plots of peasant farmers dot the hilly terrain. Another mainstay of the economy is tourism, with visitors drawn by the beaches and tropical climate. Grenada has little industry; high unemployment has plagued the nation in recent years.
^
The Carib Indians resisted European attempts to colonize Grenada for more than one hundred years after Christopher Columbus discovered the island in 1498. The French established the first settlement in 1650 and slaughtered the Caribs, but the British finally gained control in 1783. In 1974 Grenada achieved full independence under Prime Minister Eric Gairy, despite widespread opposition to his policies. In 1979 foes of the regime staged a coup and installed a Marxist government headed by Maurice Bishop. Power struggles resulted, and a military branch of the government seized power in 1983 and executed Bishop, along with several of his ministers. The United States led a subsequent invasion that deposed the Marxists. A new centrist government was installed in 1984 elections.
~
GUADELOUPE
@
Most of the people of these French islands in the Caribbean are black or of mixed black and white ancestry. A white community in the Iles des Saintes island group is descended from the original French settlers.
#
Important economic contributors include tourism, agriculture, sugar refining, and rum distilling. A drawbridge crossing a narrow strait connects the volcanic island of Basse-Terre, or Guadeloupe proper to Grande-Terre, part of a limestone island chain. Together, these two islands are knows as Guadeloupe. Other islands include the Iles des Saintes group, Marie-Galante, La Desirade, St. Barthelemy, the northern section of St. Martin, and Iles de la Petite Terre. The climate is warm with moderating trade winds.
^
Around the year 1000 the Carib Indians took the main island from the Arawaks. In 1493 Christopher Columbus arrived, but the first settlers did not come to the islands until 1635. About ten years later the sugar economy was underway, and slaves were imported from Africa to work the plantations. In 1946 France changed Guadeloupe's status from colony to overseas department.
~
GUATEMALA
@
Guatemala's population is made up of majority ladinos and minority Indians. Ladinos include both mestizos, those of Spanish-Indian origin, and westernized Indians of Mayan descent. Classified on the basis of culture rather than race, ladinos follow a Spanish-American lifestyle and speak Spanish. Nonladino Indians are also of Mayan descent; they generally speak Mayan dialects. Many are poor, uneducated, and isolated from the mainstream of Guatemalan life. Roman Catholicism often combines with traditional Mayan religious practice. Population is concentrated in the central highlands.
#
Most Guatemalans practice agriculture in some form. Indians generally operate small, unproductive subsistence farms. Export crops are mainly produced on large plantations on the fertile southern plain that borders the Pacific. Although light industry is growing, it is unable to absorb rural immigrants seeking employment in the cities. Much of the landscape is mountainous, with the Pacific plain and Caribbean lowlands bordering central highlands. Northern rain forests and grasslands are sparsely populated and largely undeveloped. The climate is tropical in low areas and temperate in the highlands.
^
Indians in the region were absorbed into the Mayan civilization that flourished in Central America by the fourth century. In 1523 the Spanish defeated the indigenous Indians and went on to establish one of the most influential colonies in Central America. Guatemala joined Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras in 1821 to declare independence from Spain, and the former Spanish colonies formed the Federation of Central America in 1823. Almost from the start, the federation was marked by dissension, and by 1838 it had, in effect, been dissolved. Following a series of dictatorships, social and economic reform began in 1944 and continued under two successive presidents. The government was ousted in a United States-backed 1954 coup and military rule established. A presidential assassination, accusations of government corruption and human-rights violations, guerrilla activities, and violence followed. A 1976 earthquake resulted in heavy loss of life and property. Military rule continued until 1985, when the nation returned to civilian rule under Marco Vinicio Cerezo.
~
HAITI
@
The world's oldest black republic, Haiti has a population composed mainly of descendants of African slaves. Most people are poor and rural. Although French is the official language, Haitian Creole, a combination of French and West African languages, is more widely spoken. Roman Catholicism is the major religion. Voodooism, which blends Christian and African beliefs, is also practiced.
#
Haiti's economy remains underdeveloped. Most people rely on subsistence farming, though productivity is hampered by high population density in productive regions. Coffee is the main commercial crop and export. Recent growth of light industry is partially attributable to tax exemptions and low labor costs. Occupying the western third of Hispaniola Island, Haiti has an overall mountainous terrain and a tropical climate.
^
Christopher Columbus reached Hispaniola in 1492, and the indigenous Arawak Indians almost completely died out during subsequent Spanish settlement. Most Spanish settlers had gone to seek their fortunes in other colonies by the 1600s, and western Hispaniola came under French control in 1697. Slave importation increased rapidly, and in less than a hundred years black Africans far outnumbered the French. In a 1791 revolution led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, Jean Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe, the slaves rose against the French. By 1804 the country achieved independence from France, and the area was renamed Haiti. In the 1820s, Haitians conquered the eastern region of the island, now the Dominican Republic, and it remained part of Haiti until 1844. Instability increased under various dictatorships from 1843 to 1915, and United States marines occupied the country from 1915 to 1934. After a time of alternating military and civilian rule, Francois Duvalier came to office in 1957, declaring himself president-for-life in 1964. His rule was marked by repression, corruption, and human-rights abuses. His son, Jean-Claude, succeeded him as president-for-life in 1971. The Duvalier dictatorship ended in 1986 when Jean-Claude fled the country. Continued unrest resulted in three different governments between 1987 and 1989.
~
HONDURAS
@
Most Hondurans are mestizos--people of Spanish-Indian descent. Other groups include Indians and descendants of black Africans and Europeans. Most Indians have been assimilated into the majority culture, but a minority continues to practice a traditional Indian lifestyle. The Spanish language predominates, and English is spoken by a small population of British descent on the northern coast and Bay Islands. Poverty is an ongoing problem for the mainly rural population, and economic and educational improvements mostly affect urban inhabitants.
#
Honduras has an underdeveloped economy based on banana cultivation. Other activities include livestock raising, coffee production, forestry, and some mining. Honduras's terrain is mostly mountainous, with lowlands along some coastal regions. The climate varies from tropical in the lowlands to temperate in the mountains.
^
Early in its history Honduras was part of the Mayan Empire. By 1502, when Christopher Columbus arrived to claim the region for Spain, the decline of the Maya had rendered the Indians weakened and unable to stave off Spanish settlement. The Spanish colonial period introduced gold and silver mines, cattle ranches, and African slaves. In 1821 Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala declared independence from Spain and, in 1823, formed the Federation of Central America. The unstable union had virtually collapsed by 1838, and the member states became independent as the federation dissolved. Instability, Guatemalan political influence, and the development of a banana economy based on United States-owned plantations marked the 1800s and early 1900s. Frequent revolutions have characterized the twentieth century, and a dictator governed from 1933 to 1948. Since the 1950s civilian governments have alternated with military coups and rule. Controversies focus on issues of poverty and land distribution. An elected civilian government has ruled since 1982. The country has become an important base for United States activities in Central America, evidenced by ongoing American military maneuvers in the area.
~
JAMAICA
@
Most Jamaicans are of African or Afro-European descent, and the majority are Christian. English is the official language, but many Jamaicans also speak Creole. Population is concentrated on the coastal plains, where the main commercial crops are also grown.
#
Agriculture is the traditional mainstay, and more than a third of the population is engaged in farming. Sugar cane and bananas are principal crops. Mining is also important, and Jamaica is a leading producer of bauxite. The tropical climate, tempered by ocean breezes, makes the island a popular tourist destination. A mountainous inland region is surrounded by coastal plains and beaches.
^
Christopher Columbus claimed the island for Spain in 1494. As the enslaved native population died out, blacks were brought from Africa to work plantations. Britain invaded and gained control of Jamaica in the seventeenth century, and for a time the island was one of the most important sugar and slave centers of the New World. In 1838 the British abolished slavery, the plantation economy broke down, and most slaves became independent farmers. Local political control began in the 1930s, and the nation became fully independent in 1962. Since independence the nation has faced problems of unemployment, inflation, and poverty, with periodic social unrest. Jamaica maintains a foreign policy of nonalignment.
~
MARTINIQUE
@
Blacks and people of mixed black-and-French ancestry compose the majority group on Martinique. The culture is a unique blend of French and West Indian life-styles.
#
Martinique's tropical climate and beautiful scenery attract many visitors each year. Agriculture provides additional income, and major products include bananas, sugar, and rum. Forested mountains cover much of the island.
^
Carib Indians inhabited the island when Christopher Columbus first sighted it in 1493. Columbus didn't come ashore until his 1502 voyage, and Indian hostility discouraged colonization. French settlement began in 1635, and except for short periods of British rule, the island has remained in French hands. In 1946 Martinique became an overseas department of France.
~
MEXICO
@
Most Mexicans are mestizos, descended from Indians and the Spaniards who conquered Mexico in the 1500s. Spanish is spoken by most inhabitants, and Roman Catholicism is the most popular religion. Another major ethnic group is comprised of indigenous Indians, or Amerindians, some of whom speak only Indian languages and hold traditional religious beliefs. Mexico's rapid population growth has contributed to poverty among rural dwellers, spurring a migration to the cities. Due to its mild climate and fertile soils, Mexico's central plateau is home to most of the population.
#
Mexico is a leading producer of petroleum and silver, a growing manufacturer of iron, steel, and chemicals, and an exporter of coffee and cotton. Foreign visitors--drawn by archaeological sites and warm, sunny weather--make tourism an important activity. Despite economic gains made since the mid-1900s in agriculture and industry, Mexico recently has been troubled by inflation, declining oil prices, rising unemployment, and a trade deficit that has grown with the need for imported materials. In recent years the peso has been significantly devalued, and banks have been nationalized to help reduce a massive international debt. Austerity plans and foreign aid are expected to help revitalize the economy. Terrain and climate are greatly varied, ranging from tropical jungles along the coast to desert plains in the north. A temperate central plateau is bounded by rugged mountains in the south, east, and west.
^
Farm settlements grew in the Valley of Mexico between 6500 and 1500 B.C., and during the subsequent three thousand years Mexico gave birth to the great civilizations of the Olmec, Maya, Toltec, and Aztec Indians. The Aztec Empire was overthrown by the Spanish in 1521, and Mexico became the viceroyalty of New Spain. Although there was much dissatisfaction with Spanish rule, rebellion did not begin until 1810. Formal independence came in 1821. Mexico lost considerable territory, including Texas, to the United States during the Mexican War, from 1846 to 1848. During subsequent years, power changed hands frequently as liberals demanding social and economic reforms battled conservatives. A brief span of French imperial rule, from 1864 to 1867, interrupted the struggle. Following a revolution that started in 1910, a new constitution was adopted in 1917, and progress toward reform began, culminating in the separation of church and state and the redistribution of land. A 1988 election was won by the Institutional Revolutionary candidate but parties on both the right and the left showed significant strength.
~
MONTSERRAT
@
Most of Montserrat's people are black descendants of African slaves, nearly all are English speaking, and the majority belong to the Anglican church. A number of the island's early settlers were Irish, and traces of an Irish brogue can still be heard in the speech of some residents. The culture, however, is distinctly West Indian.
#
The late 1970s and early 1980s saw an influx of light industry to Montserrat, with companies taking advantage of the island's tax benefits. Until recently, agriculture had been on the decline, but emphasis on the production of Sea Island cotton and vegetable crops helped to revive that sector somewhat. Tourism is an important economic contributor, yet the island remains unspoiled by commercialism. The volcanic island of Montserrat is rugged and mountainous, and the climate is tropical.
^
Christopher Columbus reached the island in 1493, naming it after the Spanish monastery of Santa Maria de Montserrat. In 1632 British and Irish settlers arrived from St. Christopher, and later in the seventeenth century many more Irish immigrants came to Montserrat via Virginia. Sugar cultivation began in 1650, and Africans were brought as slaves to work on the plantations. In 1664 the French took the island and the British were not able to regain control until four years later. In 1782 France again overpowered the British for possession of Montserrat, but it returned to British rule the next year. Slavery was ended in 1834, and the island's sugar, lime, and cotton industries declined soon after. In 1966 Montserrat residents chose to remain a colony rather than become an associate state of the United Kingdom. Although some islanders desire independence, most residents seem to prefer colonial status.
~
NETHERLANDS ANTILLES
@
The people of the Netherlands Antilles are of mixed African, Carib Indian, and European descent. Most people are multilingual, and languages include Dutch, English, and Papiamento, which combines Spanish, Dutch, Portuguese, English, and Indian elements.
#
The economy of the Netherlands Antilles is based on services and tourism, and tax incentives have drawn some industry to the islands. Poor soils and aridity limit agriculture. The mainly volcanic St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, and Saba make up the northern island group; the coral islands of Curacao and Bonaire constitute the southern islands. The climate is tropical.
^
Carib Indians were the original inhabitants of the northern islands, and Caiquetio Indians resided on the islands to the south. Christopher Columbus reached the northern islands in 1493, and the Spanish arrived at the southern islands in 1499. In the 1630s both groups came under Dutch rule. some of the islands saw brief periods of French and British rule, but since 1816 all the islands have been under Dutch control. The Netherlands Antilles is a self-governing territory of the Netherlands. Aruba was part of the territory until 1986.
~
NICARAGUA
@
Nicaraguan society closely reflects the nation's history as a Spanish colony: most of its inhabitants are Spanish speaking, Roman Catholic, and mestizo, a mix of Indian and European stocks. Indian and black communities are found mostly in the Caribbean region. The educational level has improved in the past decade.
#
Nicaragua is chiefly an agricultural nation, relying on the production of textiles, coffee, and sugar. Years of instability before a 1979 revolution, a large foreign debt inherited from the previous regime, and a continuing civil war have severely hindered economic prosperity. The nation also suffers from a reliance on imported goods. In 1985 the currency was sharply devalued, and the United States, formerly a chief trading partner, announced a trade embargo. Basic consumer goods are in short supply. The terrain includes a low-lying Pacific region, central highlands, and a flat Caribbean area. The climate is tropical.
^
Spanish conquistadores, who came via Panama in 1522 to what is now Nicaragua, found a number of independent Indian states. Nicaragua was ruled by Spain as part of Guatemala until it became independent in 1821. In 1823 the former Spanish colonies of the region formed the Federation of Central America, a union which collapsed in 1838, resulting in the independent Republic of Nicaragua. For the next century, Nicaragua was the stage both for conflict between the Liberal and Conservative parties and for United States military and economic involvement. Members of the Somoza family, who had close ties to America, directed a repressive regime from 1936 to 1979, when the widely-supported Sandinistas overthrew the government. The Sandinistas, led by Daniel Ortega, are opposed by rival political parties and the Contras, who are rebels linked to the former Somoza administration and backed by the United States. Five Central American countries reached an agreement in 1987 on a plan to dismantle Contra forces. In 1990 elections, Ortega was defeated by Violeta Chamorro of the National Opposition Union.
~
PANAMA
@
Most Panamanians are mestizos, a mixture of Spanish and Indian stocks. Indigenous Indians, blacks from the West Indies, and whites form the remaining population. A Spanish legacy is reflected by the official language, Spanish, and the predominance of Roman Catholicism. Most people live near the Panama Canal. A wealthy elite has traditionally directed the government and economy.
#
Because of its location, Panama has been a strategic center for trade and transportation. The 1914 opening of the Panama Canal, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, accentuated these strengths and has provided additional revenue and jobs; the canal area is now Panama's most economically developed region. Agriculture is an important activity; and oil refining, food processing, fishing, and financial services all contribute to the economy as well. Panama will have to adjust to the economic and technical losses that will accompany the end of United States operation of the canal in 1999. The country has a mountainous interior and a tropical climate.
^
Originally inhabited by Indians, Panama became a Spanish colony in the early 1500s and served as a vital transportation center. In 1821 it overcame Spanish rule and entered the Republic of Greater Colombia. After Colombia vetoed a United States plan to build a canal across the narrow isthmus, Panama, encouraged by the United States, seceded from the republic and became independent in 1903. Eleven years later, America completed the canal and established control over it and the Panama Canal Zone. Dissatisfaction with this arrangement resulted in several anti-American riots in the fifties and sixties. A 1968 coup placed the Panamanian National Guard in power, and the movement to end American control of the Canal Zone gained momentum. In 1979, the sovereignty of the Canal Zone was transferred to Panama; it will gain control of the canal in 1999. Some representation has been returned to civilians, but the military, under General Manuel Noriega, exercised repressive control until United States military forces invaded and overthrew Noriega in December 1989.
~
PUERTO RICO
@
Puerto Rico's chief language, Spanish, and religion, Roman Catholicism, reflect this American Commonwealth's past under Spanish rule. Most of the population is descended from Spaniards and black African slaves. A rising population has caused housing shortages and unemployment. Many Puerto Ricans live in the United States, mostly in New York City.
#
Once dependent on such plantation crops as sugar and coffee, Puerto Rico is now a manufacturing nation, specializing in food processing and electrical equipment. Commonwealth incentives for foreign investors aided this transformation, also known as Operation Bootstrap, after World War II. Foreign visitors, attracted by the tropical climate, make tourism another important activity. Economic development has been hurt by a lack of natural resources and by fluctuations in the United States economy. The island's terrain is marked by mountains, lowlands, and valleys.
^
The original inhabitants, the Arawak Indians, were wiped out by Spanish colonists, who first settled the island in 1508. Despite successive attacks by the French, English, and Dutch, Puerto Rico remained under Spanish control until 1898, when the United States took possession after the Spanish-American War. A civil government under a United States governor was set up in 1900; seventeen years later Puerto Ricans were made United States citizens. In 1952 the island became a self-governing Commonwealth. This status was upheld in a referendum in 1967, but fierce, occasionally violent internal debate continues over whether Puerto Rico should be a state, a Commonwealth, or an independent nation.
~
ST. CHRISTOPHER AND NEVIS
@
Most of the inhabitants of the islands of St. Christopher, often called St. Kitts, and Nevis are of black African descent. The primarily rural population is concentrated along the coast. English is spoken throughout the islands, and most people are Protestant, especially Anglican, evidence of former British rule.
#
Agriculture and tourism are the economic mainstays of St. Christopher and Nevis. Sugar cane is a major crop, cultivated mainly on St. Christopher, while Nevis produces cotton, fruits, and vegetables. Agriculture also provides for sugar processing, the major industrial activity. A tropical climate, beaches, and a scenic mountainous terrain provide an ideal setting for tourism.
^
The islands were first inhabited by Arawak Indians, who were displaced by the warlike Caribs. In 1493 Christopher Columbus sighted the islands, and in the 1600s British settlement of both islands began, along with French settlement on St. Christopher. Sugar plantations were soon established, and slaves were imported from Africa. Britain's control of the islands was recognized by the 1783 Treaty of Paris, and for a time St. Christopher, Nevis, and Anguilla were ruled as a single colony. Anguilla became a separate dependency of Britain in 1980, and St. Christopher and Nevis gained independence in 1983.
~
ST. LUCIA
@
St. Lucia's population is composed mainly of descendants of black African slaves, and minority groups include people of African-European descent, whites, and East Indians. During the colonial period, the island frequently shifted from British to French control, and its culture reflects both British and French elements. Although English is widely spoken, many St. Lucians speak a French dialect. Roman Catholicism is the main religion, and the Protestant minority includes Anglicans.
#
Agriculture remains important, and principal crops include bananas and cocoa. Tax incentives and relative political stability have caused an increase in industrial development and foreign investment, mainly from the United States. Tourism is becoming increasingly important, with visitors drawn by the tropical climate, scenic mountainous terrain, and beaches.
^
Arawak Indians arrived between the A.D. 200s and 400s, and were conquered by the Caribs between the ninth and eleventh centuries. Dutch, French, and British rivalry for control began in the seventeenth century, but the Europeans were unable to subdue the Caribs. The first successful settlement was established by the French in 1651. After many years of alternating French and British control, St. Lucia came under British rule through the 1814 Treaty of Paris. The island gained full independence in 1979.
~
ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON
@
Lying off the coast of Newfoundland in Canada, the territorial collectivity of St. Pierre and Miquelon is the last of France's former North American empire. Most of the colony's 6,200 inhabitants are Roman Catholic descendants of Norman stock. French is spoken throughout the islands, and nearly all residents can read and write.
#
The islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon are barren, rocky, and frequently covered in fog. Agricultural activity is minimal; thin soil and little vegetation cover the island's granite masses. St. Pierre and Miquelon lie near the fish-rich waters of the Grand Banks. Fishing is the main economic activity and major employer. The primary export is fish, which makes up 88 percent of the total export trade. After fish, shellfish provide for 6 percent and fishmeal 5 percent of exported goods. During the annual fishing season, European as well as local vessels are found in the waters surrounding the islands. Because of the Gulf Stream, St. Pierre's harbor remains ice free throughout the winter, and is on a shipping route that connects with Sydney, Australia. St. Pierre and Miquelon is made up on a number of small islands in addition to the two main islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. The climate is mild and humid, moderated by the Gulf Stream.
^
Basque fishermen found their way to the islands in the sixteenth century, and French settlement began in the seventeenth century. In 1713 the British captured the islands, but the 1763 Treaty of Paris returned the islands to French hands. That same treaty ceded the French colony of Acadia to Britain, and when many French inhabitants of Acadia were forced to relocate, some of these established permanent settlements on St. Pierre and Miquelon. British-French rivalry for possession continued, and the British were able to regain control of the islands two more times in the next decades. In 1814 French rule was finally established, with the stipulation that France could not fortify the islands. From 1816 to 1976 the islands were a French overseas territory, and they became self-governing in 1956. A French territorial collectivity, the islands are governed by a privy, council and a fourteen-member general council, which the voters of St. Pierre and Miquelon elect by direct vote. The term of each representative is six years. The islands are represented in France by two senators and a councillor, while an appointed commissioner represents France's interests on the islands.
~
ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES
@
The people of St. Vincent are mainly descended from black African slaves. The colonial influences of Britain and France are evident in the languages and religions. English is the official language, though a French patois is also spoken. Most people are Anglican, Methodist, or Roman Catholic.
#
St. Vincent's economy is based on agriculture, especially banana production. Tourism also plays a role, both on the main island of St. Vincent and in the Grenadines. St. Vincent is the largest island, and about one hundred smaller islands make up the Grenadines. The terrain is mountainous, with coastlines marked by sandy beaches, and the climate is tropical.
^
The indigenous Arawak Indians were conquered by the Caribs about 1300. Christopher Columbus probably reached the area in 1498. Although the Caribs fought the Europeans, the British began settling St. Vincent in the 1760s. A period of French control began in 1779, and the islands were returned to the British in 1783. St. Vincent and the Grenadines remained under British rule until they gained independence in 1979.
~
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
@
The two islands of Trinidad and Tobago form a single country, but Trinidad has nearly all the land mass and population. About 80 percent of all Trinidadians are either black African or East Indian, and about 20 percent are European, Chinese, and of mixed descent. Most Tobagonians are black African. The official language is English, and Christianity and Hinduism are the major religions.
#
Agriculture and tourism are important, but the economy is based on oil, which accounts for about 80 percent of the nation's exports. Trinidad is also one of the world's chief sources of natural asphalt and possesses supplies of natural gas. Tropical rain forests, scenic beaches, and fertile farmland characterize the islands.
^
Trinidad was occupied by Arawak Indians when Christopher Columbus arrived and claimed the island for Spain in 1498. The island remained under Spanish rule until 1797, when the British captured it and ruled for more than 150 years. Tobago changed hands among the Dutch, French, and British until 1814, when Britain took control. In 1888 Trinidad and Tobago became a single British colony and achieved independence in 1962. A separatist movement on Tobago has caused the government to give that island more control over its internal affairs.
~
TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS
@
The population of Turks and Caicos is mostly black. English is the main language, although Haitian Creole is spoken by a group of immigrants. A trend of emigration is reversing as the islands' economy develops and employment opportunities expand.
#
Since the completion of a major resort in 1984, Turks and Caicos tourism industry has expanded, with visitors drawn by the beautiful beaches and offshore coral reefs. Financial services are on the rise as well; tax benefits, coupled with minimal government control, continue to attract foreign investors. More than thirty islands and cays compose Turks and Caicos. Six of the main islands are inhabited, along with several of the cays. The terrain is flat with some low hills. The climate is tropical, tempered by trade winds.
^
The islands' first inhabitants were Lucayan Indians. It is likely that present-day Turks and Caicos, rather than San Salvador in the Bahamas, was Christopher Columbus's first New World landfall in 1492. The Spaniard Ponce de Leon arrived in 1515, and soon the islands became a center for pirate activity. In 1678 settlers from Bermuda made their way to the islands, establishing a sea salt operation that endured as a successful enterprise until 1964. Until the 1760s, when the British secured the islands, Turks and Caicos saw invasions by both the Spanish and the French. Following the American Revolution, British Loyalists fled the United States for Turks and Caicos, establishing a plantation economy fueled by slaves. At various times the islands were joined with the Bahamas and Jamaica, and when Jamaica gained independence in 1962, Turks and Caicos became a separate colony.
~
UNITED STATES
@
The diverse population of the United States is mostly composed of whites, many descended from eighteenth- and nineteenth-century immigrants; blacks, mainly descended from African slaves; peoples of Spanish and Asian origin; and indigenous Indians, Inuit, and Hawaiians. Religions encompass the world's major faiths; Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, and Judaism predominate. English is the official language, though Spanish is spoken by many, and other languages are often found in ethnic enclaves.
#
The United States is an international economic power, and all sectors of the economy are highly developed. Fertile soils produce high crop yields, with considerable land under cultivation. Mineral output includes petroleum and natural gas, coal, copper, lead, and zinc; but high consumption makes the United States dependent on foreign oil. The country is a leading manufacturer, with a well-developed service sector. Mountains, prairies, woodlands, and deserts mark its vast terrain. The climate varies regionally, from mild year-round along the Pacific coast and in the South to temperate in the Northeast and Midwest. In addition to forty-eight contiguous states, the country includes the subarctic state of Alaska and the tropical state of Hawaii, an island group in the Pacific.
^
Thousands of years ago, Asiatic peoples, ancestors of American Indians, crossed the Bering Strait land bridge and spread across North and South America. Vikings reached North America around A.D. 1000, and Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492. Following early explorations by Portugal and Spain, England established a colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Thirteen British colonies waged a successful war of independence against England from 1775 to 1783. United States expansion continued westward throughout the nineteenth century. The issues of black slavery and states' rights led to the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, a struggle that pitted the North against the South and resulted in the end of slavery. Opportunities for prosperity accompanied the industrial revolution in the late nineteenth century and led to a large influx of immigrants. From 1917 to 1918, the country joined with the Allies in World War I. A severe economic depression began in 1929, and the United States did not really recover until World War II stimulated industry and the economy in general. In 1945, the use of the atomic bomb on Japan ended the war and changed the course of history. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Vietnam War, 1961-75, ushered in an era of great social progress and turmoil in the United States. Technological advances were unparalleled with man's entry into space and the first landing on the moon in 1969. The 1980s saw increasing concern with a deteriorating environment and the nuclear arms race.
~
VIRGIN ISLANDS, BRITISH
@
See UNITED KINGDOM
#
See UNITED KINGDOM
^
See UNITED KINGDOM
~
VIRGIN ISLANDS, UNITED STATES
@
See UNITED STATES
#
See UNITED STATES
^
See UNITED STATES
~
ARGENTINA
@
An indigenous Indian population, Spanish settlement, and a turn-of-the-century influx of immigrants have made Argentina an ethnically diverse nation. Today, most Argentines are descendants of Spanish and Italian immigrants. Other Europeans, mestizos of mixed Indian-Spanish blood, Indians, Middle Easterners, and Latin American immigrants diversify the population further. Spanish influence is evident in the major religion, Roman Catholicism; the official language, Spanish; and many aspects of cultural life.
#
Political difficulties beginning in the 1930s have resulted in economic problems and have kept this onetime economic giant from realizing its potential. The most valuable natural resource is the rich soil of the pampas, fertile plains in the east-central region. The greatest contributors to the economy, however, are manufacturing and services. The second largest country in South America, Argentina has a varied terrain, with northern lowlands, the east-central pampas, the Andes Mountains in the west, and the southern Patagonian steppe. The climate likewise varies, from subtropical in the north to subarctic in the south.
^
The earliest inhabitants of the area were Indians. In the 1500s silver-seeking Spaniards arrived, and by 1580 they had established a colony on the site of present-day Buenos Aires. In 1816 Argentina officially announced its independence from Spain. A successful struggle for independence ensued, and in 1853 a constitution was adopted and a president elected. Prosperity continued through the 1920s, and immigration and foreign investment increased. Unsatisfactory power distribution and concern over foreign investment resulted in a military coup in 1930. Thus began a series of civil and military governments; coups; the election, overthrow, and reelection of Juan Peron; and controversial human-rights violations. In 1982 Argentina lost a war with Britain over the Falkland Islands. Years of struggling with human rights transgressions followed. Since winning the election in 1989, the Peronistas are attempting to deal with severe economic problems.
~
BOLIVIA
@
Indians compose the majority of Bolivia's population, while minorities include mestizos, of Spanish-Indian descent, and Europeans. Although most people are poor, Bolivia has a rich cultural heritage, evidenced by early Aymaran and Quechuan artifacts; Spanish-influenced Indian and mestizo art; and twentieth-century achievements. Roman Catholicism is the major religion, and is frequently combined with Indian beliefs.
#
Although the underdeveloped Bolivia is among South America's poorest nations, it is rich in natural resources. While farming is the main activity, mining makes the largest contribution to the gross national product. Population, industry, and major cities are concentrated on the western altiplano, an Andean high plateau where many continue to practice agriculture according to ancestral methods. The eastern llano, or lowland plain, contains fuel deposits and is the site of commercial farming. The yungas, hills, and valleys between the antiplano and the llano form the most developed agricultural region. Successful development of Bolivia's rich resources is partially dependent upon political stability. The climate varies from tropical to semiarid and cool, depending on altitude.
^
The Aymara Indian culture flourished in the area that is now Bolivia between the seventh and tenth centuries. In the mid-1400s the area was absorbed into the expanding empire of the Incas, who controlled the region until ousted by the Spanish in 1535. Simon Bolivar, the Venezuelan organizer of the South American movement to free Spanish colonies, helped lead the way to independence, which was gained in 1825. As Bolivia developed economically, the Indian population remained ensconced in poverty and enjoyed few rights. After years of turmoil, a 1952 revolution installed a government that introduced suffrage, land and educational reforms. Several military coups followed, and civilian control was reestablished in 1982. Although economic instability and high inflation rates have long troubled Bolivia, the economy has shown signs of growth since 1987.
~
BRAZIL
@
The largest South American nation, Brazil is also the most populous. Indigenous Indians, Portuguese colonists, black African slaves, and European and Japanese immigrants shaped the mixed population. Today, native Indians compose less than 1 percent of the population, and the group is disappearing rapidly due to contact with modern cultures and other factors. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, and Roman Catholicism is the major religion.
#
Brazil's prosperous economy stems from a diversified base of agriculture, mining, and industry. Most commercial farms and ranches lie in the southern plateau region, and coffee, cocoa, soybeans, and beef are important products. Mineral resources include iron-ore deposits, many found in the central and southern plateau regions. Additional mineral deposits have recently been discovered in the Amazon area. During and after World War II, the country focused on industrial expansion in the southeast, and in 1960 it moved the capital from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia to redistribute activity. Undeveloped states have been targeted for development, but such programs may require displacement of the Indian population. Forests cover about half the country, and the Amazon River basin is the site of the world's largest rain forest. The northeast consists of semiarid grasslands, and the central-west and south are marked by hills, mountains, and rolling plains. Overall the climate is semitropical to tropical, with heavy rains.
^
Portugal obtained rights to the region in a 1494 treaty with Spain and claimed Brazil in 1500. As the native Indian population died out, blacks were brought from Africa to work the plantations. In the 1800s, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Portuguese royal family fled to Rio de Janeiro, and in 1815 the colony became a kingdom. In 1821 the Portuguese king departed for Portugal, leaving Brazil's rule to his son, who declared Brazil an independent country and himself emperor in 1822. Economic development in the mid-1800s brought an influx of Europeans. Following a military takeover in 1889, Brazil became a republic. Economic problems resulted in a 1930 military coup, a dictatorship that lasted until 1945, and military takeovers in 1954 and 1964. The country returned to civilian rule in 1985. Key political issues have been the massive foreign debt and worldwide concern over the destruction of the rain forest.
~
CHILE
@
Chile's land barriers--the eastern Andes, western coastal range, and northern desert--have resulted in a mostly urban population concentrated in a central valley. Mestizos, of Spanish-Indian heritage, and descendants of Spanish immigrants predominate. In addition to an Indian minority, the population includes those who trace their roots to Irish and English colonists or nineteenth-century German immigrants. The country enjoys a relatively high literacy rate, but poverty remains a problem.
#
Chile's land provides the natural resources necessary for a successful economy, but longtime instability has taken its toll. The northern desert region is the site of mineral deposits, and mining is a major component of trade, making Chile vulnerable to outside market forces. An agricultural zone lies in the central valley, while the south offers forests, grazing land, and some petroleum deposits. The climate varies from region to region but is generally mild.
^
Upon their arrival in the 1500s, the Spanish defeated the northern Inca Indians, although many years were spent in conflict with Araucanian Indians of the central and southern regions. From the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries, Chile received little attention from ruling Spain, and colonists established a successful agriculture. In 1818 Bernardo O'Higgins led the way to victory over the Spanish and became ruler of independent Chile. By the 1920s, dissent arising from unequal power and land distribution united the middle and working classes but social-welfare, education, and economic programs were unable to eliminate inequalities rooted in the past. A 1960 earthquake and tidal wave added to the country's problems. Leftist Salvador Allende Gossens was elected to power in 1970, governing until his death in 1973 in a military coup which installed Augusto Pinochet. Civil disturbances and grave human-rights abuses marked his right-wing government. This dictatorship ended with the election of a new leader in December 1989.
~
COLOMBIA
@
Colombia's mixed population traces its roots to indigenous Indians, Spanish colonists, and black African slaves. Most numerous today are mestizos, those of Spanish-Indian descent. Roman Catholicism, the Spanish language, and Colombia's overall culture evidence the long-lasting effect of Spanish rule. Over the past decades the population has shifted from mainly rural to urban as the economy has expanded into industry.
#
Industry now keeps pace with traditional agriculture in economic contributions, and mining is also important. Natural resources include oil, coal, natural gas, most of the world's emeralds, plus fertile soils. The traditional coffee crop also remains important for Colombia, a leading coffee producer. The terrain is characterized by a flat coastal region, central highlands, and wide eastern llanos, or plains. The climate is tropical on the coast and in the west, with cooler temperatures in the highlands.
^
In the 1500s Spaniards conquered the native Indian groups and established the area as a Spanish colony. In the early 1700s, Bogota became the capital of the viceroyalty of New Granada, which included modern Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Rebellion in Venezuela in 1796 sparked revolts elsewhere in New Granada, including Colombia, and in 1813 independence was declared. In 1819 the Republic of Greater Colombia was formed and included all the former members of the Spanish viceroyalty. Independence leader Simon Bolivar became president. By 1830 Venezuela and Ecuador had seceded from the republic, followed by Panama in 1903. The Conservative and Liberal parties, dominating forces in Colombia's political history, arose from differences between supporters of Bolivar and Santander. Conservative-Liberal conflict led to a violent civil war from 1899 to 1902, as well as to La Violencia, The Violence, a civil disorder that continued from the 1940s to the 1960s and resulted in about three hundred thousand deaths. From the late fifties through the seventies, the government alternated between conservative and liberal rule. Political unrest reduced the effectiveness of both parties. By the 1980s, growing drug traffic presented Colombia with new problems. In 1989 the government declared war on the drug cartels after antigovernment terrorism increased.
~
ECUADOR
@
Ecuador's ethnicity was established by an indigenous Indian population and Spanish colonists. Minority whites, of Spanish or other European descent, live mainly in urban areas or operate large farms called haciendas. Of mixed Spanish- Indian blood, mestizos compose over half the population, although economic and political power is concentrated among whites. Minority Indians speak Quechua or other Indian languages and maintain traditional customs in Andean villages or nomadic jungle tribes. Blacks are concentrated on the northern coastal plain. Recent trends show a movement from the interior highlands to the fertile coastal plain and a rural-to-urban shift. A history of economic inequality has produced a literary and artistic tradition that has focused on social reform.
#
Despite an oil boom in the 1970s, Ecuador remains underdeveloped. Minor oil production began in 1911, but since a 1967 petroleum discovery in the oriente, a jungle region east of the Andes, Ecuador has become an oil exporter and a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Agriculture remains important for much of the population, although primitive and inefficient practices continue among the poor. Rich soils of the costa, extending from the Pacific to the Andes, support most of the export crops. Forestry and fishing have growth potential, and the waters around the Galapagos Islands are rich in tuna. Manufacturing is mainly devoted to meeting domestic needs. The oriente and costa lie on either side of the sierra, a region of highland plateaus between the two Andean chains. Varied altitudes result in a climate ranging from tropical in the lowlands to temperate in the plateaus and cold in the high mountains. A variety of wildlife inhabits the Galapagos Islands, five large and nine small islands about 600 miles (966 km) off Ecuador's coast in the Pacific Ocean.
^
In the fifteenth century Incas conquered and subsequently united the area's various tribes. In the 1500s the Spanish gained control, using Indians and African slaves to work the plantations. Weakened by the Napoleonic Wars, Spain lost control of Ecuador in 1822, and Simon Bolivar united the independent state with the Republic of Greater Colombia. Ecuador left the union as a separate republic in 1830, and subsequent years saw instability and rule by presidents, dictators, and juntas. From 1925 to 1948 no leader was able to complete a full term in office. A new constitution was established in 1978, and a 1979 election installed a president who died in a plane crash in 1981. A 1988 election brought a leftward shift in the government, which is now challenged by a large foreign debt.
~
FALKLAND ISLANDS
@
Most Falkland Island inhabitants are of British descent, an ancestry reflected in their official language, English, and majority Anglican religion.
#
Sheep raising is the main activity, supplemented by fishing. In 1982 Britain funded the Falkland Islands Development Corporation, which began operation in 1984. Situated about 300 miles (482 km) east of southern Argentina, East and West Falkland compose the main and largest islands. Numerous small islands are classified as dependencies. The climate is cool, damp, and windy.
^
Although the British sighted the islands in 1592, the French established the first settlement in 1764, on East Falkland. The British settled on West Falkland the next year. Spain, which ruled the Argentina territories to the west, purchased the French area and drove out the British in 1770. When Argentina gained independence from Spain in 1816, it claimed Spain's right to the islands. Britain reasserted its rule over the islands in the 1830s. The Falklands became a British colony in 1892, with dependencies annexed in 1908. Continued Argentine claim resulted in a 1982 Argentine invasion and occupation. The British won the subsequent battle and continue to govern the Falklands. The dependencies of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands became a separate British colony in 1985.
~
FRENCH GUIANA
@
French Guiana has a majority population of black descendants of African slaves and people of mixed African-European ancestry. Population is concentrated in the more accessible coastal area, but the interior wilderness is home to minority Indians and the descendants of slaves who fled to pursue traditional African lifestyles. French is the predominant language, but a French-English creole is also spoken. Two Indo-Chinese refugee settlements were established in 1977 and 1979.
#
Shrimp production and a growing timber industry are French Guiana's economic mainstays. The land remains largely undeveloped, however, and reliance on French aid continues. Agriculture is limited by wilderness, but mineral deposits offer potential for mining. The fertile coastal plains of the north give way to hills and mountains along the Brazilian border. Rain forests cover much of the landscape, which features a tropical climate.
^
Indigenous Indians and a hot climate defeated France's attempt at settlement in the early 1600s. The first permanent French settlement was established in 1634, and the area became a French colony in 1667. For almost one hundred years, beginning in the 1850s, penal colonies such as Devils Island brought an influx of European prisoners. The region became a French overseas department in 1946. A minority nationalist group strives for greater autonomy.
~
GUYANA
@
Guyana's population includes descendants of black African slaves and East Indian, Chinese, and Portuguese laborers who were brought to work sugar plantations. Amerindians, the indigenous peoples of Guyana, are a minority. Ninety percent of the people live along the fertile coastal plain, where farming and manufacturing are concentrated.
#
Agriculture and mining compose the backbone of the Guyanese economy. Sugar and rice continue to be important crops, and mines produce bauxite, manganese, diamonds, and gold. Guyana's inland forests give way to savanna and a coastal plain. The climate is tropical.
^
First gaining European notice in 1498 with the voyages of Christopher Columbus, Guyana was the stage for competing colonial interests--British, French, and Dutch--until it officially became British Guiana in 1831. Slavery was abolished several years later, causing the British to import indentured laborers, the ancestors of today's majority group. A constitution, adopted in 1953, was suspended when Britain feared a Communist victory at the polls. In the early 1960s, racial tensions erupted into riots between East Indians and blacks. In 1966, the country gained independence, and adopted the name Guyana. Guyana became a republic in 1970 and has pursued socialist policies. The two main political parties continue to reflect its ethnic divisions: the People's National Congress is supported by blacks, and the People's Progressive party by East Indians.
~
PARAGUAY
@
Paraguay's population displays a homogeneity unusual in South America; most people are a mix of Spanish and Guarani Indian ancestry, are Roman Catholic, and speak both Spanish and Guarani. The small number of unassimilated Guarani live mostly in western Paraguay, known as the Gran Chaco. There are some foreign communities, mostly German, Japanese, and Brazilian. Culture combines Spanish and Indian traditions.
#
Agriculture, based on cotton, soybeans, and cattle, forms the keystone of the economy. Forestry also contributes significantly to Paraguay's exports. The lack of direct access to the sea, unskilled labor, and a history of war and instability have resulted in an underdeveloped economy; manufacturing in particular has suffered. The world's largest hydroelectric project, the Itaipu Dam, was completed in 1988. Paraguay has two distinct regions, divided by the Paraguay River: the semiarid Gran Chaco plains in the west, and the temperate, fertile east, where most farming takes place.
^
The indigenous Guarani formed an agricultural society centered around what is now Asuncion. Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the early 1500s, and the region subsequently gained importance as the center of Spanish holdings in southern South America. During the 1700s, Jesuit missionaries worked to convert thousands of Indians to Roman Catholicism. After gaining independence in 1811, Paraguay was ruled until 1870 by three successive dictators: Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia, who held power from 1814 to 1840 and sealed Paraguay off from foreign influence; Carlos Antonio Lopez, who reversed this isolationism during his rule from 1841 to 1862; and his son, Francisco Solano Lopez, who led Paraguay into a disastrous war against Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil that cost the nation half its population. A war against Bolivia from 1932 to 1935 increased Paraguay's territory but further weakened its stability. Alternating weak and repressive regimes followed until 1989, when a military coup ended the thirty-five year regime of General Stroessner. His successor, General Rodriguez, then won a multi-candidate election and promised to turn over the government to an elected civilian in 1993.
~
PERU
@
Peru's Indian population constitutes the nation's largest ethnic group and the largest Indian concentration in North or South America. Although whites make up the third largest group after Indians and mestizos, they have historically controlled much of the wealth. The Indians are often geographically and culturally remote from the ruling classes and generally live in poverty. Most Peruvians practice Roman Catholicism, a Spanish inheritance.
#
Considerable natural resources have made Peru a leader in the production of minerals--notably copper, lead, and silver--and in fishing. The food-processing, textile, and oil-refining industries also contribute. Productivity has been slowed by a mountainous terrain that impedes transport and communication, earthquakes and other natural disasters, a largely unskilled work force, and years of stringent military rule. Climate varies from arid and mild in the coastal desert to temperate but cool in the Andean highlands and hot and humid in the eastern jungles and plains.
^
Several Indian cultures arose in the region between 900 B.C. and A.D. 1200, the last of which was the Incan. Excavation began in 1987 of the richest burial ground of a pre-Hispanic ruler ever discovered, further documenting the sophistication of these cultures. Builders of an empire stretching from Colombia to Chile, the Inca were conquered by the Spanish by 1533. For almost the next three hundred years, Peru was a harshly ruled Spanish colony and center for colonial administration. Peru achieved independence from Spain in 1821, largely through the efforts of Jose de San Martin of Argentina and Simon Bolivar of Venezuela, although Spain did not formally recognize Peruvian independence until 1879. Military officers ruled the country through the rest of the century. In 1883, Chile and Bolivia defeated Peru in the War of the Pacific, and the country lost its valuable southern nitrate region. A reform party, despite being banned by the government, gained momentum in the 1930s and 1940s. Fernando Belaunde Terry, a moderate reformer, was elected in 1963. A military junta ousted him in 1968, nationalizing some industries and instituting land reform. Inflation and unemployment caused dissatisfaction and a 1975 coup. Elections in 1980 and 1985 restored democratic leadership.
~
SURINAME
@
Descendants of East Indians and Creoles--of mixed European-black African heritage--compose Suriname's two major groups. Black African slaves and contract laborers, imported from the east, resulted in various ethnic populations. Minority groups include the Javanese; Bush Negroes, a black group; Amerindians, descendants of Arawak and Caribs; Chinese; and Europeans. Dutch is the official language, but most groups have preserved their distinct language, culture, and religion.
#
The economy is based on mining and metal processing, and bauxite and alumina are the major exports. Agriculture plays an economic role as well and, together with fishing and forestry, offers potential for expansion. A narrow coastal swamp, central forests and savanna, and southern jungle-covered hills mark the country's terrain. The climate is tropical.
^
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, present-day Suriname was inhabited by indigenous Indians. Christopher Columbus sighted the coast in 1498, but the area's lack of gold slowed Spanish and Portuguese exploration. The British established the first settlement in 1651, and in 1665 Jews from Brazil erected the first synagogue in the Western Hemisphere. In 1667 the British traded the area to the Netherlands for the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam--present-day Manhattan, New York. Subsequent wars and treaties shifted ownership of Suriname among the British, French, and Dutch until 1815, when the Netherlands regained control. In 1954, Suriname became an autonomous part of the Netherlands, with status equal to that of the Netherlands and the Netherlands Antilles. Suriname gained independence in 1975. In 1980, the military seized power and established a military-civilian government soon after. In 1987, a new constitution, as well as an election, moved Suriname towards greater political stability.
~
URUGUAY
@
Most Uruguayans are white descendants of nineteenth- and twentieth-century immigrants from Spain, Italy, and other European countries. Mestizos, of Spanish-Indian ancestry, and blacks round out the population. Spanish is the official language, and Roman Catholicism is the major religion, with small Protestant and Jewish minorities. Many Uruguayans claim to follow no religion.
#
Uruguay's fertile soil, grassy plains, and temperate climate provide the basis for agriculture and are especially conducive to livestock raising. The country has virtually no mineral resources, and petroleum exploration has been unrewarding. However, refinement of imported fuel is a major industry, and Uruguay has significant hydroelectric potential.
^
Uruguay's original inhabitants were Indians. In the 1680s, the Portuguese established the first European settlement, followed by a Spanish settlement in the 1720s. By the 1770s, Spain had gained control of the area, but in the 1820s Portugal once again came to power, annexing present-day Uruguay to Brazil. When nationalistic feelings in the early nineteenth century led to an 1828 war by Uruguayan patriots and Argentina against Brazil, the country achieved independence. Political unrest, caused in part by economic depression, resurfaced in the 1970s, leading to military intervention in the government and the jailing of thousands of political prisoners. The country restored its civilian government in 1985.
~
VENEZUELA
@
Spanish colonial rule of Venezuela is reflected in its predominantly mestizo population, people of Spanish-Indian blood, and its official language of Spanish. Minorities include Europeans, blacks, and Indians, who generally speak local languages. Nearly all Venezuelans are Roman Catholic, further evidence of former Spanish domination. Protestants and lesser numbers of Jews and Muslims compose small minorities, and traditional religious practices continue among some Indians.
#
Since the expansion of the petroleum industry in the 1920s, Venezuela has experienced rapid economic growth, but unevenly distributed wealth, a high birthrate, and fluctuations in the price of oil have hampered the economy. Partly because of the emphasis on oil production, agriculture has declined; its contribution to the gross national product is minimal, and Venezuela must import much of its food. Manufacturing and hydroelectric power are being developed. The varied Venezuelan landscape is dominated by the Andes Mountains, a coastal zone, high plateaus, and plains, or llanos. The climate is tropical, but temperatures vary with altitude. Most of the country experiences rainy and dry seasons.
^
The original inhabitants of modern Venezuela included Arawak and Carib Indians. In 1498 Christopher Columbus was the first European to visit Venezuela. The area became a colony of Spain and was briefly under German rule. Independence was achieved in 1821 under the guidance of Simon Bolivar, Venezuela's national hero. Venezuela became a sovereign state in 1830. The nineteenth century saw political instability and revolutionary fervor, followed by a succession of dictators in the twentieth century. Since 1958, Venezuela has tried to achieve a representational form of government and has held a number of democratic elections. The fall in oil prices, for a country heavily dependent upon oil export, has been an economic hardship in recent years.
~
ALBANIA
@
A homogeneous native population characterizes Albania, where Greeks are the main minority. Five centuries of Turkish rule shaped much of the culture and led many Albanians to adopt Islam. Since 1944, when the current Communist regime was established, an increased emphasis on education has more than tripled the literacy rate. In 1967 religious institutions were banned. Albania claims to be the world's first atheist state.
#
Reputedly one of the poorest countries in Europe, Albania has tried to shift its economy from agriculture to industry. Farms employed about 60 percent of the work force in 1970, a significant decrease from more than 80 percent before 1944. Mineral resources make mining the chief industrial activity. The terrain consists of forested hills and mountains, and the climate is mild.
^
Early invaders and rulers included Greeks, Romans, Goths, and others. In 1468, the Ottoman Turks conquered the area and it remained part of their empire until the First Balkan War in 1912. Invaded by Italy and occupied by Germany during World War II, Albania set up a Communist government in 1944, following the German retreat. A strict approach to communism caused the country to sever ties with its onetime allies--the Soviet Union, and most recently China.
~
ANDORRA
@
Much of Andorran life and culture has been shaped by its mountainous terrain and governing countries, France and Spain. Population is concentrated in the valleys, and despite a tourism boom in past decades, the peaks and valleys of the Pyrenees have isolated the small country from many twentieth- century changes. Spanish is the official language, and cultural and historic ties exist with the Catalonian region of northern Spain. The majority of the population is Spanish; Andorran citizens are a minority.
#
The terrain has established Andorra's economy as well as its lifestyle. Improved transportation routes together with other factors have resulted in a thriving tourist industry--a dramatic shift from traditional shepherding and tobacco growing. In addition, duty-free status has made the country a European shopping mecca. Tobacco is still the main agricultural product, though only about 4 percent of the land is arable. Climate varies with altitude; winters are cold and summers are cool and pleasant.
^
Tradition indicates that Charlemagne freed the area from the Moors in A.D. 806. A French count and the Spanish bishop of Seo de Urgel signed an agreement in the 1200s to act as coprinces of the country, establishing the political status and boundaries that exist today. The coprincipality is governed by the president of France and the bishop of Seo de Urgel. The country has no formal constitution, no armed forces other than a small police force, and no political parties.
~
AUSTRIA
@
The majority of Austrians are native born, German speaking, and Roman Catholic, a homogeneity belying a history of invasions by diverse peoples. With a long cultural tradition, the country has contributed greatly to music and the arts--Vienna, the capital, is one of the great cultural centers of Europe.
#
Austria's economy is a blend of state and privately-owned industry. After World War II the government began nationalizing industries, returning many to the private sector as the economy stabilized. Unemployment is low, and the economy remains relatively strong. The economic mainstays are services and manufacturing. Agriculture is limited because of the overall mountainous terrain, with the Danube River basin in the east containing the most productive soils. In addition to the country's cultural heritage, the alpine landscape also attracts many tourists. The climate is generally moderate.
^
Early in its history, Austria was settled by Celts, ruled by Romans, and invaded by Germans, Slavs, Magyars, and others. Long rule by the Hapsburg family began in the thirteenth century, and in time Austria became the center of a vast empire. In 1867 Hungarian pressure resulted in the formation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Nationalist movements against Austria culminated in the 1914 assassination of the heir to the throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, and set off the conflict that became World War I. In 1918 the war ended, the Hapsburg emperor was overthrown, Austria became a republic, and present-day boundaries were established. Political unrest and instability followed. In 1938 Adolf Hitler incorporated Austria into the German Reich. A period of occupation after World War II was followed by Austria's declaration of neutrality and ongoing political stability. Today Austria enjoys economic prosperity with strong ties to the western European community.
~
BELGIUM
@
Language separates Belgium into two main regions. Northern Belgium, known as Flanders, is dominated by Flemings, Flemish-speaking descendants of Germanic Franks. French-speaking Walloons, descendants of the Celts, inhabit southern Belgium, or Wallonia. Both groups are found in centrally located Brussels. In addition, a small German- speaking population is concentrated in the east. Flemish and French divisions often result in discord, but diversity has also been a source of cultural richness. Belgium has often been at the hub of European cultural movements.
#
The economy, as well as the population, was affected by Belgium's location at the center of European activity. Industry was early established as the economic base, and today the country is heavily industrialized. Although agriculture plays a minor economic role, Belgium is nearly self- sufficient in food production. The north and west are dominated by a flat fertile plain, the central region by rolling hills, and the south by the Ardennes Forest, often a tourist destination. The climate is cool and temperate.
^
Belgium's history began with the settlement of the Belgae tribe in the second century B.C. The Romans invaded the area around 50 B.C. and were overthrown by Germanic Franks in the A.D. 400s. Trade, manufacturing, and art prospered as various peoples invaded, passed through, and ruled the area. In 1794 Napoleon annexed Belgium to France. He was defeated at Waterloo in Belgium in 1815, and the country passed into Dutch hands. Dissatisfaction under Netherlands rule led to revolt and, in 1830, the formation of the independent country of Belgium. Germans overthrew the country during both world wars. Linguistic divisions mark nearly all political activity, from parties split by language to government decisions based on linguistic rivalries.
~
BULGARIA
@
Bulgaria's ethnic composition was determined early in its history when Bulgar tribes conquered the area's Slavic inhabitants. Bulgarians, descendants of these peoples, are a majority today, while Turks, Gypsies, and Macedonians compose the main minority groups. Postwar development is reflected in an agriculture-to-industry shift in employment and a resultant rural-to-urban population movement.
#
Following World War II, the Bulgarian government began a program of expansion, turning the undeveloped agricultural nation into an industrial state modeled after the Soviet Union. Today the industrial sector is the greatest economic contributor and employer. Farming, however, continues to play an economic role. Rich soils in river valleys, as well as a climate similar to that of the American Midwest, make the area well suited for raising livestock, growing grain and other crops. The overall terrain is mountainous.
^
The area of modern Bulgaria was absorbed by the Roman Empire by A.D. 15 and was subsequently invaded by the Slavs. In the seventh century Bulgars conquered the region and settled alongside Slavic inhabitants. Rule by the Ottoman Turks began in the late fourteenth century and lasted until 1878, when the Bulgarians defeated the Turks with the aid of Russia and Romania. The Principality of Bulgaria emerged in 1885, with boundaries approximating those of today, and in 1908 Bulgaria was declared an independent kingdom. Increased territory and a desire for access to the Aegean Sea were partially responsible for Bulgaria's involvement in the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 and alliances with Germany during both world wars. Following Bulgaria's declaration of war on the United States and Britain in World War II, the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria. Defeat came in 1944, when the monarchy was overthrown and a Communist government established shortly thereafter. Pressure from the people for more participation in the government resulted in the resignation of General Zhivkov, Bulgaria's leader for thirty-five years. The rights of Bulgaria's ethnic Turks have become a major political issue.
~
CHANNEL ISLANDS
@
Most people are French and British, thus mostly Anglican and Roman Catholic. English is the main language, and a Norman-French dialect is spoken in some areas.
#
The mild climate has encouraged tourism and agriculture. The Channel Islands consist of the main islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark plus several smaller islands.
^
In the tenth century, the Channel Islands came under the Duke of Normandy, and in 1066 the Norman Conquest tied them to Britain. The islands continue as a British dependency.
~
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
@
Czechs and Slovaks, descendants of Slavic tribes, predominate in Czechoslovakia. Characterized by a German-influenced culture, Czechs are concentrated in the regions of Bohemia and Moravia. Slovaks, whose culture was influenced by Hungarian Magyars, reside mainly in Slovakia. Czech and Slovak are official languages. Minorities include Hungarians, or Magyars; Ukrainians; Germans; Poles; and Gypsies, a rapidly growing group concentrated in Slovakia. Most people are Roman Catholic; the government licenses and pays clergy.
#
An industrial nation, Czechoslovakia has a centralized economy and one of the highest standards of living in Eastern-bloc countries. Coal deposits in Bohemia and Moravia form the base for industrial development, and Bohemia remains an economically important region. Nearly all agriculture is collectivized; despite high farm outputs, some food must be imported. Farming areas are found in the river valleys of north-central Bohemia and central Moravia, and Slovakia remains largely agricultural. A rolling western area, central hills, low mountains in the north and south, and the Carpathian Mountains in the east characterize Czechoslovakia's terrain. The climate is temperate.
^
Slavic tribes were established in the region by the sixth century. By the tenth century Hungarian Magyars had conquered the Slovaks in the region of Slovakia. Bohemia and Moravia became part of the Holy Roman Empire, and by the twelfth century Bohemia had become a strong kingdom that included Moravia and parts of Austria and Poland. Austria gained control of the area in 1620, and later became part of Austria-Hungary. With the collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I, an independent Czechoslovakia, consisting of Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia, was formed. Nazi Germany invaded Czechoslovakia in 1939, and the Soviet Union liberated the nation from German occupation in the winter and spring of 1944 to 1945. By 1948 Communists controlled the government, and political purges continued from 1949 to 1952. A 1968 invasion by the Soviet Union and Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and East Germany resulted when the Czechoslovakian Communist party leader introduced liberal reforms. Demonstrations forced the Communist party to agree to a coalition government in 1989. Vaclav Havel, a longtime opposition leader, was elected interim president until elections, which are planned for 1990.
~
DENMARK
@
Denmark is made up of the Jutland Peninsula and more than four hundred islands, about one hundred of which are inhabited. Greenland, which is situated northeast of Canada, and the Faeroe Islands, which are located between Scotland and Iceland in the North Atlantic, are also part of Denmark. Lutheran, Danish-speaking Scandinavians constitute the homogenous population of the peninsula and surrounding islands, although a German minority is concentrated near the West German border. The government provides extensive social services and programs. The literacy rate is high, and Denmark has made significant contributions to science, literature, and the arts.
#
Despite limited natural resources, Denmark has a diversified economy. Agriculture contributes to trade, and pork and bacon are important products. Postwar expansion focused on industry, and the country now imports the raw materials it lacks and exports finished products. The North Sea is the site of oil and natural gas deposits. On the Faeroe Islands, traditional fishing continues as the economic mainstay. Most of Denmark's terrain is rolling, with hills covering much of the peninsula and the nearby islands. Coastal regions are marked by fjords and sandy beaches, especially in the west. The climate is temperate, with North Sea winds moderating temperatures. The rugged Faeroe Islands are damp, cloudy, and windy.
^
By the first century, access to the sea had brought contact with other civilizations. This led to the Viking area, which lasted from the ninth to eleventh centuries and resulted in temporary Danish rule of England. In the fourteenth century, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, and Greenland were united under Danish rule. Sweden and Finland withdrew from the union in the 1500s, and Denmark lost Norway to Sweden in 1814. A constitutional monarchy was instituted in 1849. Late nineteenth-century social reform, reflected in a new constitution in 1915, laid the groundwork for Denmark's current welfare state. The country remained neutral in World War I. Iceland gained independence following the war but maintained its union with Denmark until 1944. Despite declared neutrality in World War II, Denmark was invaded and occupied by Germany from 1940 to 1945. Compromise and gradual change characterize Danish politics. Its foreign policy stresses ties with developing nations and peaceful solutions to international problems.
~
FAEROE ISLANDS
@
Most of the inhabitants of the Faeroe Islands are of Norse descent. Their language, Faeroese, is related to the Old Norse language, and many islanders feel strongly about preserving their linguistic heritage. Danish is taught in the schools, however. Eighteen of the more than twenty islands are inhabited, and over one-third of the population lives on Streymoy, the largest island of the group.
#
Today as in the past, the Faeroe Islands' economy is dependent upon a fishing industry subsidized by Denmark. Only about 6 percent of the land is cultivated, and besides potatoes and some vegetables, this area provides grass for sheep raising. Coal is mined on the island of Sudhuroy, and throughout the island group people make and sell handicrafts. In addition, some islanders collect and sell the eggs and feathers of the birds that inhabit the cliffs along the coast. The main islands in this volcanic chain are Streymoy, Eysturoy, Vagar, Sudhuroy, and Sandoy. Many islands rise to steep cliffs from a rugged and uneven coastline. Winters are mild, and summers cool.
^
Norse settlers arrived in the eighth century, but the islands didn't officially become part of Norway until the eleventh century. In the 1300s, along with Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and Greenland, the Faeroe Islands came under Danish rule. During World War II, when the Germans invaded Denmark, the British occupied the islands. In 1946 the people participated in a plebiscite, and the result was a declaration if the islands' independence from Denmark. But when the island of Sudero remained in favor of Danish rule, the Danish king announced the result was not conclusive, and the islands continued under Danish control. Two years later, however, the Faeroe Islands became self-governing.
~
FINLAND
@
The mainly Finnish population includes minorities of Swedes--a result of past Swedish rule--and indigenous Lapps. As part of northern Finland lies within the Arctic Circle, population is concentrated in the south. Finland's rich cultural tradition has contributed much to the arts. Its highly developed social-welfare programs provide free education through the university level, as well as national health insurance.
#
Much of Finland's economy is based on its rich forests, which support trade and manufacturing activities. The steel industry is also important. Agriculture focuses on dairy farming and livestock raising; hence many fruits and vegetables must be imported. Coastal islands and lowlands, a central lake region, and northern hills mark Finland's scenic terrain. Summers in the south and central regions are warm, and winters long and cold. Northern Finland--located in the ""Land of the Midnight Sun''--has periods of uninterrupted daylight in the summer and darkness in the winter.
^
The indigenous nomadic Lapps migrated north in the first century when the Finns arrived, probably from west-central Russia. A Russian- Swedish struggle for control of the area ended with Swedish rule in the 1100s. Finland was united with Denmark from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries. Russia and Sweden fought several wars for control of the country. In 1809 Finland became an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire. After the Russian czar was overthrown in the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new Russian government recognized Finland's declaration of independence. During World War II, Finland fought against the Soviets and, by the peace treaty signed in 1947, lost a portion of its land to the Soviet Union. During the postwar years, Finland and Russia renewed their economic and cultural ties and signed an agreement of friendship and cooperation. Foreign policy emphasizes friendly relations with the Soviet Union and Scandinavia.
~
FRANCE
@
Many centuries ago, Celtic and Teutonic tribes and Latins established France's current ethnic patterns. The French language developed from the Latin of invading Romans but includes Celtic and Germanic influences as well. Language and customs vary somewhat from region to region, but most people who speak dialects also speak French. France has long contributed to learning and the arts, and Paris is a world cultural center. In addition to mainland divisions, the country has overseas departments and territories.
#
The French economy is highly developed. The nation is a leader in agriculture and industry; its problems of inflation and unemployment are common to other modern countries. Soils in the north and northeast are especially productive, and grapes are grown in the south. Minerals include iron ore and bauxite. Industry is diversified, centered in the Paris manufacturing area, and tourism is important. About two-thirds of the country is flat to rolling, and about one-third is mountainous, including the Pyrenees in the south and the Alps in the east. In the west and north, winters are cool and summers mild. Climate varies with altitude. The southern coast has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers and mild winters.
^
In ancient times Celtic tribes inhabited the area that encompasses present-day France. The Romans, who called the region Caul, began to invade about 200 B.C., and by the 50s B.C. the entire region had come under Roman rule. Northern Germanic tribes--including the Franks, Visigoths, and Burgundians--spread throughout the region as Roman control weakened, and the Franks defeated the Romans in A.D. 486. In the 800s Charlemagne greatly expanded Frankish-controlled territory, which was subsequently divided into three kingdoms. The western kingdom and part of the central kingdom included modern France. In 987 the Capetian dynasty began when Hugh Capet came to the throne, an event which is often considered the start of the French nation. During subsequent centuries, the power of the kings increased and France became a leading world power. Ambitious projects, such as the palace built by Louis XIV at Versailles, and several military campaigns, resulted in financial difficulties. The failing economy and divisions between rich and poor led to the French Revolution in 1789 and the First French Republic in 1792. Napoleon Bonaparte, who had gained prominence during the revolution, overthrew the government in 1799 and established the First Empire, which ended in 1815 with his defeat at Waterloo in Belgium. The subsequent monarchy resulted in discontent, and a 1848 revolution established the Second French Republic with an elected president, who in turn proclaimed himself emperor and set up the Second Empire in 1852. Following a war with Prussia in 1870, the emperor was ousted, and the Third Republic began. This republic ended Germany's invasion in World War I but ended in 1940 when invading Germans defeated the French. By 1942 the Nazis had control of the entire country. The Allies liberated France in 1944, and General Charles de Gaulle headed a provisional government until 1946, when the Fourth Republic was established. Colonial revolts in Africa and French Indochina took their toll on the economy during the fifties. Controversy over a continuing Algerian war for independence brought de Gaulle to power once more and resulted in the Fifth Republic in 1958. Dissension and national strikes erupted during the 1960s, a result of dissatisfaction with the government, and de Gaulle resigned in 1969. In 1987 Francois Mitterand was reelected, giving the Socialists a plurality.
~
GERMANY
@
Germany has a homogeneous, German-speaking population with very small Danish and Slavic minorities. Roman Catholics, Evangelicals, and other Protestants are the largest religious groups. The people of Germany are well educated and boast a rich cultural heritage of achievements in music, literature, philosophy, and science. Germany has the largest population of any European nation, excluding the Soviet Union.
#
Despite the devastating effects of World War II and Germany's forty-five year division into two countries, the country has one of the world's strongest economies. Industry is the basis of its prosperity, with mining, manufacturing, construction, and utilities important contributors. The Ruhr district, which is the nation's most important industrial region, is located near the Rhine River in west-central Germany and includes cities such as Essen and Dortmund. Agricultural remains important in the southern and central regions. Germany's terrain varies from northern plains to central uplands and hills that rise to the southern Bavarian Alps. A mild climate is tempered by the sea in the north; in the south the winters are colder because of the Alps.
^
In ancient times Germanic tribes overcame Celtic inhabitants in the area of Germany and established a northern stronghold against Roman expansion of Gaul. As the Roman Empire weakened, the Germanic peoples invaded, deposing the Roman governor of Gaul in the fifth century A.D. The Franks composed the strongest tribe, and in the ninth century Frankish-controlled territory was expanded and united under Charlemagne. Unity did not last, however, and Germany remained a disjointed territory of warring feudal states, duchies, and independent cities. The Reformation, a movement led by German monk Martin Luther, began in 1517 and evolved into the Protestant branch of Christianity. The rise of Prussian power and growing nationalism eventually united the German states into the German Empire in 1871, and Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck installed Prussian King Wilhelm I as emperor. In a few short years Germany rose to become Europe's foremost industrial and military power. In 1914 Germany allied with Austria and their subsequent invasions of France and Russia were responsible for World War I. Hardships imposed by the victors against Germany led to instability and economic collapse. Promising prosperity and encouraging nationalism, Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist, or Nazi, party rose to power in 1933. Hitler' ruthless nationalist policies included a genocidal program to eliminate Jews and many other peoples, and his ambitions to conquer all of Europe led to World War II. Germany was defeated by Allied Forces in 1945 only after enormous casualties had been inflicted on both sides. The United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and France subsequently divided Germany into four zones of occupation. The eastern, Soviet-occupied zone became a communist country called the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany. The three remaining zone of Germany were combined to form the capitalist Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany. Berlin, not included in the occupation zones, was divided between the east and west. The Berlin Wall became a symbol of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. In the late 1980s the Soviet Union began to loosen its grip on its satellite nations and in 1989 East Germans began a mass exodus to West Germany. In October, 1990, East Germany was officially absorbed into West Germany, despite concerns by the Soviet Union and other nations that a reunified Germany could once again threaten to dominate its European neighbors.
~
GIBRALTAR
@
Occupying a narrow peninsula on Spain's southern coast, the British colony of Gibraltar has a mixed population of Italian, English, Maltese, Portuguese, and Spanish descent. A number of British residents--many of which are military personnel--also reside here. Most are bilingual in English and Spanish.
#
With land unsuited for agriculture and a lack of mineral resources, Gibraltar depends mainly on the British military and tourism. Shipping-related activities and a growing service industry also provide jobs and income. Connected to Spain by an isthmus, Gibraltar consists mainly of the limestone-and-shale ridge known as the Rock of Gibraltar. The climate is mild.
^
Drawn by Gibraltar's strategic location at the Atlantic entrance to the Mediterranean Sea, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, and Moors all played a role in the land's history. After nearly three hundred years under Spanish control, Gibraltar was captured by Britain in 1704, during the War of the Spanish Succession. It was officially ceded to the British in the 1713 Peace of Utrecht. In a 1967 referendum, residents voted to remain under British control. British-Spanish competition for the colony continues. The outcome of the 1988 election makes it clear that a 1987 agreement between Spain and Britain regarding sovereignty does not have popular approval.
~
GREECE
@
Greece has played a central role in European, African, and Asian cultures for thousands of years, but today its population is almost homogeneous. Native Greek inhabitants are united by a language that dates back three thousand years and a religion that influences many aspects of everyday life. Athens, the capital, was the cultural center of an ancient civilization that produced masterpieces of art and literature and broke ground in philosophy, political thought, and science.
#
The economy of Greece takes its shape from terrain and location. Dominated by the sea and long a maritime trading power, Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world and depends greatly on commerce. The mountainous terrain and poor soil limit agriculture, although Greece is a leading producer of lemons and olives. The service sector, including tourism, provides most of Greece's national income. Inhabitants enjoy a temperate climate, with mild, wet winters, and hot, dry summers.
^
Greece's history begins with the early Bronze Age cultures of the Minoans and the Mycenaeans. The city-state, or polis, began to develop around the tenth century B.C., and Athens, a democracy, and Sparta, an oligarchy, gradually emerged as Greece's leaders. The Persian Wars, in which the city-states united to repel a vastly superior army, ushered in the Golden Age of Athens, a cultural explosion in the fifth century B.C. The Parthenon, perhaps Greece's most famous building, was built at this time. Athens was defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, and by 338 B.C. Philip II of Macedon had conquered all of Greece. His son, Alexander the Great, defeated the Persians and spread Greek civilization and language all over the known world. Greece became a Roman province in 146 B.C. and part of the Byzantine Empire in A.D. 395, but its traditions had a marked influence on these empires. Absorbed into the Ottoman Empire in the 1450s, Greece had gained independence by 1830 and became a constitutional monarchy about fifteen years later. For much of the twentieth century the nation was divided between republicans and monarchists. During World War II Germany occupied Greece, and postwar instability led to a civil war, which Communist rebels eventually lost. A repressive military junta ruled Greece from 1967 until 1974, when the regime relinquished power to a civilian government. The Greeks then voted for a republic over a monarchy. A Socialist government ruled until 1989. Indecisive election results forced the scheduling of a new election in 1990.
~
HUNGARY
@
Hungary's major ethnic group and language evolved from Magyar tribes who settled the region in the ninth century. Gypsies, Germans, and other peoples compose minorities. Most people are Roman Catholic, and the government supervises religious activities through a state office. The government also controls educational programs, and the literacy rate is high. Growth of industry since the 1940s has caused a rural-to-urban population shift.
#
Following World War II, Hungary pursued a program of industrialization, and the onetime agricultural nation now looks to industry as its main economic contributor. Agriculture is almost completely socialized, and farming remains important, with productivity aided by fertile soils and a mild climate. Economic planning was decentralized in 1968, thus Hungary's economy differs from that of other Soviet-bloc nations, permitting some private enterprise. A flat plain dominates the landscape, and the lack of varied terrain results in a temperate climate throughout the country.
^
In the late 800s Magyar tribes from the east overcame Slavic and Germanic residents and settled the area. Invading Mongols caused much destruction in the thirteenth century. In the early 1500s, after repeated attacks, the Ottoman Turks dominated central Hungary. By the late seventeenth century, the entire region had come under the rule of Austria's Hapsburgs. Hungary succeeded in obtaining equal status with Austria in 1867, and the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary emerged. Discontent and nationalistic demands increased until 1914, when a Bosnian Serb killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and World War I began, resulting in both territory and population losses for Hungary. At the end of the war, in 1918, Hungary became a republic, only to revert to monarchical rule in 1919. Hungary entered World War II on the side of Germany, and Adolf Hitler set up a pro-Nazi government in Hungary in 1944. The Soviet Union invaded that same year, and a Hungarian-Allied peace treaty was signed in 1947. Coalition rule evolved into a Communist government in 1949. In 1956 discontent erupted into rebellion, a new premier declared Hungary neutral, and Soviet forces entered Budapest to quell the uprising. A new constitution, which goes into effect in 1990, will help move the nation away from Communist domination.
~
ICELAND
@
Most Icelanders are of Norwegian or Celtic ancestry, live in coastal cities, and belong to the Lutheran church. Icelandic, the predominant language, has changed little from the Old Norse of the original settlers and still resembles the language of twelfth-century Nordic sagas.
#
Fish, found in the island's rich coastal waters, are the main natural resource and export. Iceland has a long tradition based on fishing, but the industry has recently suffered from decreasing markets and catches. Glaciers, lakes, hot springs, volcanoes, and a lava desert limit agricultural land but provide a scenic terrain. Although the island lies just south of the Arctic Circle, the climate is moderated by the Gulf Stream. Summers are damp and cool, and winters relatively mild but windy. Proximity to the Arctic Circle puts Iceland in the ""Land of the Midnight Sun,'' resulting in periods of twenty-four-hour daylight in June.
^
Norwegians began settlement of Iceland around the ninth century. The world's oldest parliament, the Althing, was established in Iceland in A.D. 930. Civil wars and instability during the thirteenth century led to the end of independence in 1262, when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. In the fourteenth century Norway was joined to Denmark's realm, and rule of Iceland passed to the Danes. The Althing was abolished in 1800 but reestablished in 1843. In the 1918 Act of Union, Iceland became a sovereign state but retained its union with Denmark under a common king. Germany occupied Denmark in 1940 during World War II; and British troops, replaced by Americans in 1941, protected Iceland from invasion. Following a 1944 plebiscite, Iceland left its union with Denmark and became an independent republic.
~
IRELAND
@
Most of Ireland's population is descended from the Celts, a people who flourished in Europe and Great Britain in ancient times. Irish Gaelic, a form of ancient Celtic, and English are official languages. Most people are Roman Catholic. Protestants mainly belong to the Church of Ireland, a member of the Anglican Communion. With a long literary tradition, the country has contributed greatly to world literature.
#
Ireland's economy was agricultural until the 1950s, when a program of rapid industrialization began. This expansion resulted in significant foreign investment, especially by the United States. Most of the Irish labor force is unionized. Agriculture continues to play an important role, however, and food is produced for domestic and foreign consumption. The country of Ireland occupies most of the island but excludes Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. The fertile central region features green, rolling hills, suitable for farming and pastureland, and is surrounded by coastal highlands. The climate is temperate maritime, with mild summers and winters and plentiful rainfall.
^
Around the fourth century B.C., Ireland's indigenous population was conquered by Gaels, a Celtic tribe, from continental Europe and Great Britain. Christianity was introduced by St. Patrick in A.D. 432, and periodic Viking raids began near the end of the eighth century. In the twelfth century the pope made the Norman king of England, Henry II, overlord of the island; the English intervened in a dispute between Irish kings; and centuries of British influence began. As British control grew, so did Irish Catholic hostility, arising from seizure of land by English settlers, the Protestant Reformation, and the elimination of political and religious freedoms. The Protestant majority of present-day Northern Ireland was established in the 1600s, when land taken from the Irish was distributed to English and Scottish Protestants. In 1801 the British Act of Union established the United Kingdom of Great Britain, and Northern Ireland. Religious freedom was regained in 1829, but the struggle for independence continued. Most of the Irish depended upon potatoes as a staple food, and hundreds of thousands died or emigrated in the 1840s when the crop failed because of a plant disease. Following an armed rebellion, the Irish Free State, a dominion of Great Britain, was created in 1921, with the predominantly Protestant countries in the north remaining under British rule. The nation became a republic in 1949. Many Irish citizens and Catholics in Northern Ireland continue to demand unification of the country, and the struggle occasionally erupts into violence. Neutrality remains the basis of foreign policy, and the nation is a strong supporter of European unity.
~
ISLE OF MAN
@
Manx, of Celtic descent, compose the majority population on the Isle of Man. Their language, also called Manx, is virtually extinct, having been replaced by English nearly universally on the island. A dependency of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man has a minority British population, and the main religion is Anglican.
#
Agricultural activities include livestock raising and dairy farming, and the island's major crops are oats, wheat, barley, and potatoes. Fishing provides for local consumption and export income, and tax incentives have encouraged the development of industry. About 11 percent of the island's income comes from tourism. The Isle of Man is situated midway between Britain and Ireland, and many tourists from the British Isles visit the island annually, attracted by its scenic beauty. In addition, a popular motorcycle race held each year draws international visitors. The rocky coast is marked by cliffs, and moors cover much of the island's interior. Calf of Man, a rocky islet, lies off the southwest shore. The climate is mild.
^
Irish missionaries came to the Isle of Man early in its history. The Vikings took the island in the ninth century, and it remained under Norwegian control until 1266. Various rulers and owners followed, including the Scots, Welsh, British, and the earls of Salisbury and Derby. In 1765 Britain bought the island from the Duke of Atholl. A self-governing territory of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man has its own legal system; residents are not subject to British laws and acts, although local laws require British approval. The island also has its own legislature, the one-thousand-year-old Tynwald, which is one of the world's oldest legislative bodies. The Crown is represented in the dependency by a lieutenant governor. The Isle of Man is also famous as the birthplace of the Manx cat.
~
ITALY
@
Italy is populated mainly by Italian Roman Catholics. Most speak Italian; however, dialects often differ from region to region. Despite an ethnic homogeneity, the people exhibit diversity in terms of politics and culture. The country has about twelve political parties, and northern inhabitants are relatively prosperous, employed primarily in industry, whereas southerners are generally farmers and often poor. The birthplace of the Renaissance, Italy has made substantial contributions to world culture.
#
The Italian economy is based on private enterprise, although the government is involved in some industrial and commercial activities. Industry and commercial agriculture are centered in the north, which produces steel, textiles, and chemicals. A hilly terrain makes parts of the south unsuited for crop raising, and livestock grazing is a main activity. Tourism is also important; visitors are drawn by the northern Alps, the sunny south, and the Italian cultural tradition. The island of Sicily, lying off the southwest coast, produces fruits, olives, and grapes. Sardinia, a western island, engages in some sheep and wheat raising. Except for the northern Po Valley, narrow areas along the coast, and a small section of the southern peninsula, Italy's terrain is mainly rugged and mountainous. In 1987, landslides in the Alps destroyed Sant'Antonio Morignone, isolating it from the rest of the country. The climate varies from cold in the Alps to mild and Mediterranean in other regions.
^
Early influences in Italy included Greeks, Etruscans, and Celts. From the fifth century B.C. to the fifth century A.D., the dominant people were Romans descended from Sabines and neighboring Latins, who inhabited the Latium coast. Following the demise of the Roman Empire, rulers and influences included Byzantines; Lombards, an invading Germanic tribe; and the Frankish King Charlemagne, whom the pope crowned emperor of the Romans in 800. During the eleventh century, Italy became a region of city-states, and its cultural life led to the Renaissance, which started in the 1300s. As the city-states weakened, Italy fell victim to invasion and rule by France, Spain, and Austria, with these countries controlling various regions at different times. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II, the king of Sardinia, proclaimed Italy a kingdom, and by 1871 the nation included the entire peninsula, with Rome as the capital and Victor Emmanuel as king. In 1922 Benito Mussolini, the leader of Italy's Fascist movement, came to power. By 1925 Mussolini was ruling as dictator, and an almost continuous period of warfare followed. In World War II the country allied with Germany, and a popular resistance movement evolved. The monarchy was ended by plebiscite in 1946, and the country became a republic. There are now many political parties, but the Christian Democratic, Communist, and Socialist parties are dominant. Italy's Communist party is the world's largest nonruling Communist party.
~
LIECHTENSTEIN
@
In spite of its location at the crossroads of Europe, Liechtenstein has retained a largely homogeneous ethnicity. Almost all Liechtensteiners are descended from the Alemanni, a Germanic tribe, and many speak the Alemanni dialect. German, however, is the official language. Roman Catholicism is the most widely practiced religion but a Protestant minority also exists. Most of the country is mountainous, and population is concentrated on the fertile plains adjacent to the Rhine River, which forms the country's western boundary. Most Liechtensteiners work in factories or in trades.
#
The last few decades have seen the economy shift from agricultural to highly industrialized. Despite this growth in industry, Liechtenstein has not experienced a serious pollution problem, and the government continues its work to prevent the problem from occurring. An economic alliance with Switzerland dating from 1923 has been profoundly beneficial to Liechtenstein: the two nations form a customs union and use the same currency. Other important sources of revenue are tourism, the sale of postage stamps, and taxation of foreign businesses headquartered here. Most of Liechtenstein, one of the world's smallest nations, is covered by the Alps; nonetheless, its climate is mild.
^
Early inhabitants of what is now Liechtenstein included the Celts, Romans, and Alemanni, who arrived about A.D. 500. The area became part of the empire of the Frankish King Charlemagne in the late 700s, and following Charlemagne's death, it was divided into the lordships of Vaduz and Schellenberg. By 1719, when the state became part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Austrian House of Liechtenstein had purchased both lordships, uniting them as the Imperial Principality of Liechtenstein. The nation's independence dates from the abolition of the empire by France's Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806. Liechtenstein was neutral in both world wars and has remained unaffected by European conflicts. The government is a hereditary constitutional monarchy; the prince is the head of the House of Liechtenstein, thus chief of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. In 1984, women gained the right to vote.
~
LUXEMBOURG
@
Luxembourg's population bears the imprint of foreign influences, yet retains an individual character. Most Luxembourgers are a blend of Celtic, French, and German stock. German and French are official languages, as is Luxembourgish, an indigenous German dialect. Roman Catholicism is observed by virtually all the population. There are significant communities of guest workers from several European nations.
#
Luxembourg's steel industry forms the basis of its economy, and the country has compensated for a worldwide drop in the steel market by developing financial services, notably banking. Manufacturing of plastics and chemicals is also important, as is tourism. Luxembourg's trade benefits from the country's membership in the European Community and the Benelux union. Luxembourg has two distinct regions: the mountainous, wooded north and the open, rolling south, known as Bon Pays. The climate is temperate.
^
The present city of Luxembourg developed from a castle built in A.D. 963 by Count Siegfried of Ardennes. Several heavily fortified towns grew up around the castle, and the area became known as the ""Gibraltar of the North'' because of those fortifications. The duchy remained semiautonomous until the Burgundians conquered the area in 1443. Various European powers ruled Luxembourg for most of the next four centuries, and in 1815 the duchy was elevated to a grand duchy. It became autonomous in 1839 and was recognized in 1867 as an independent state. Despite Luxembourg's declaration of neutrality, Germany occupied the country in both world wars. Luxembourg maintains a pro-Western, pan-European stance in its foreign relations.
~
MALTA
@
Malta's diverse population reflects centuries of rule by Arabs, Normans, and British. The official languages are English and Maltese, the latter a blend of Arabic and a Sicilian dialect of Italian. Roman Catholicism is practiced by the majority of residents. Malta is one of the world's most densely populated nations.
#
Situated strategically between Europe and Africa, Malta became an important military site for foreign powers with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Its economy, shaped by the patterns of war and peace in the Mediterranean, has recently turned toward commercial shipbuilding, construction, manufacturing, and tourism. Its soil is poor, and most food is imported. Although there are many natural harbors and hundreds of miles of coastline, fishing is not a major source of income. Malta, with its hilly terrain, is subtropical in summer and temperate the rest of the year.
^
The Phoenicians and Carthaginians first colonized the island of Malta between 1000 and 600 B.C. After becoming part of the Roman and Byzantine empires, Malta was ruled successively by Arabs, Normans, and various feudal lords. In the 1500s the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V ceded Malta to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, an order of the Roman Catholic church. The Knights' reign, marked by cultural and architectural achievements, ended with surrender to France's Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. The Maltese resisted French rule, however, and offered control to Britain, becoming part of the United Kingdom in 1814. Throughout both world wars, Malta was a vital naval base for the Allied forces. It achieved independence from Britain in 1964 and became a republic ten years later. In 1979 the last British and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) military forces departed, and Malta declared its neutrality and nonalignment.
~
MONACO
@
Monaco is inhabited mostly by French citizens, while Monegasques--citizens of indigenous descent--and various Europeans form the rest of the population. Many foreigners have taken up residence, drawn by the country's tax benefits. French is the official language. Monegasque, a blend of French and Italian, is also spoken, as are French, Italian and English. Most residents are Roman Catholic.
#
Monaco's beautiful seaside location, mild Mediterranean climate, and famous gambling casino in Monte Carlo make it a popular tourist haven. Consequently, tourism forms the backbone of the economy. Production of chemicals, food products, and perfumes, among other light industries, are additional sources of income. Monaco also profits from many foreign businesses, which are attracted by the favorable tax climate and headquartered in the principality. France and Monaco form a customs union for a mutually beneficial trade system; the French franc is Monaco's official currency. The world's second smallest independent state in area--after Vatican City--Monaco has four regions: the old city of Monaco-Ville, site of the royal palace; Monte Carlo, the resort and major tourist center; La Condamine, the port area; and Fontvieille, the rapidly growing industrial section.
^
Known to the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, the region became a Genoese colony in the twelfth century A.D. Around the turn of the fourteenth century, the area was granted to the Grimaldi family of Genoa. France, Spain, and Sardinia had intermittent control of Monaco from 1400 until 1861, when its autonomy was recognized by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty. Another treaty, providing for French protection of Monaco, was signed in 1918. The absolute rule of Monaco's princes ended with the 1911 constitution.
~
NETHERLANDS
@
The major ethnic group is the Dutch, for the most part a mixture of French, Scandinavian, and Celtic peoples. There are small minorities from the former Dutch possessions of Indonesia and Suriname. Dutch is the official language, but many Netherlanders also speak English or German. Although most Dutch are Christian, the nation has a history of religious tolerance that has drawn countless refugees.
#
A variety of manufacturing strengths--notably the metal, chemical, and food-processing industries--fuels the prosperous economy. Tourism and the production of natural gas are also important. Due to a lack of natural resources, the Netherlands must import many goods. The country benefits from its strategic position and has enjoyed success in shipping and trade. Much of the Netherlands, including most farmland, has been reclaimed from the sea through artificial drainage. The land is almost uniformly flat, and proximity to the sea produces a mild, damp climate. The Kingdom of the Netherlands includes the Netherlands Antilles, two groups of Caribbean islands, and Aruba.
^
The Germanic tribes of the area were conquered in 58 B.C. by the Romans, who were driven out in the A.D. 400s by the Franks. As part of the Low Countries with Belgium and Luxembourg, the Netherlands was dominated successively by Charlemagne, the dukes of Burgundy, the Hapsburgs, and rulers of Spain. Spanish persecution of Dutch Protestants led to a revolt that in 1581 created the Republic of the United Netherlands. In the 1600s the Netherlands became a maritime as well as a colonial power and produced many masterpieces in painting. But a series of wars with England and France ending in 1714 spelled the end of Dutch influence, and the nation fell to France in 1795. With the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte of France in 1815, the Netherlands was united with Belgium and became an independent kingdom. Belgium seceded in 1830. The Netherlands declared its neutrality in both world wars but was occupied by Germany from 1940 to 1945. The war cost the country many lives and much of its economic strength. Membership in several international economic unions aided recovery. Since the war, the Netherlands has abandoned neutrality and now maintains a pro-Western stance in foreign affairs.
~
NORWAY
@
Because of its relatively remote location in far northern Europe, Norway has seen few population migrations and possesses a virtually homogeneous population, which is predominantly Germanic, Norwegian speaking, and Lutheran. Small communities of Lapps and Finns live in the far north, while most Norwegians live in the south and along the coast. The people enjoy many government-provided social services and programs.
#
Norway's economy, based on shipping, trade, and the mining of offshore oil and natural gas, takes its shape from the nation's proximity to several seas. Shipbuilding, fishing, and forestry are also important activities. Norway is a leading producer of hydroelectricity. Combined with some government control of the economy, these lucrative activities have given the nation a high standard of living and fairly low unemployment. Most of Norway is a high plateau covered with mountains. The Gulf Stream gives the nation a much milder climate than other places at the same latitude.
^
Parts of present-day Norway were inhabited by about 9000 B.C. Germanic tribes began immigrating to the area about 2000 B.C. Between A.D. 800 and 1100, Viking ships from Norway raided coastal towns throughout Western Europe and also colonized Greenland and Iceland. Unified around 900, Norway was subsequently shaken by civil war, plague, and the end of its royal line. It entered a union with Denmark in 1380, becoming a Danish province in 1536. Around the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1814, Norway became part of Sweden. A long struggle against Swedish rule ended in 1905 as Sweden recognized Norwegian independence, and a Danish prince was made king. Norway was neutral in World War I but endured German occupation during World War II. In 1967 the government initiated a wide-ranging social-welfare system. Norway retains relations with Western nations and the Soviet Union, but does not allow foreign military bases or nuclear arms on its soil.
~
POLAND
@
Poland's homogeneous population is partially a result of Nazi persecution during World War II, which virtually obliterated the Jewish community and led to the emigration of most minorities. Roman Catholicism, practiced by almost all Poles, remains a unifying force. The urban population has risen in the postwar period because of government emphasis on industrialization.
#
Government policies since the war have transformed Poland from an agricultural nation into an industrial one. It is a leading producer of coal and has several metal-processing industries. Machinery and textiles are important products. Although most industries are government controlled, the majority of farms are privately owned. Poland's poor soil and short growing season have kept it from achieving agricultural self-sufficiency. Shortages in consumer goods have been chronic since the 1970s, when the failure of Polish goods in world markets compounded debts to the West. Poland has a mostly flat terrain--except for mountains in the south--and a temperate climate.
^
Slavic tribes inhabited the region of modern Poland several thousand years ago. The Piast dynasty began in the A.D. 900s and established Roman Catholicism as the official religion. In the sixteenth century, the Jagiellonian dynasty guided the empire to its height of expansion. A subsequent series of upheavals and wars weakened Poland, and from the 1770s to the 1790s it was partitioned three times, finally disappearing as an independent state. In 1918, following the Allies' World War I victory, Poland regained its independence and, through the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, much of its former territory. World War II began with Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939. With the end of the war, Poland came under Communist control and Soviet domination. Antigovernment strikes and riots, some spurred by rising food prices, erupted periodically. In the first free election since Communist control, the trade union, Solidarity, won an overwhelming victory in 1989.
~
PORTUGAL
@
Although many foreign invaders have been drawn by Portugal's long coastline, today the population is relatively homogeneous. One group of invaders, the Romans, laid the basis for the chief language, Portuguese, which developed from Latin. The only significant minority is composed of black Africans from former colonies. Most Portuguese are rural and belong to the Roman Catholic church, which has had a strong influence on society.
#
The mainstays of agriculture and fishing were joined in the mid-1900s by manufacturing, chiefly of textiles, clothing, cork products, metals, and machinery. A variety of social and political ills contributing to Portugal's status as one of Europe's poorest nations include: past wars with African colonies, an influx of colonial refugees, and intraparty violence. Tourism is increasingly important, but agriculture has suffered from outdated techniques and a rural-to-urban population shift. The terrain is mostly plains and lowlands, with some mountains; the climate is mild and sunny.
^
Inhabited by an Iberian people about five thousand years ago, the area was later visited by Phoenicians, Celts, and Greeks before falling to the Romans around the first century B.C. The Romans were followed by Germanic Visigoths and in A.D. 711 by North African Muslims, who greatly influenced Portuguese art and architecture. Spain absorbed Portugal in 1094, and Portugal declared its independence in 1143. About one hundred years later, the last of the Muslims were expelled. Portugal's golden age--during which its navigators explored the globe and founded colonies in South America, Africa, and the Far East--lasted from 1385 to the late 1500s. Rival European powers soon began to seize Portuguese holdings. In 1580, Spain invaded Portugal, ruling until 1640, when the Spanish were driven out and independence reestablished. After the 1822 loss of Brazil, Portugal's most valuable colony, and decades of opposition, a weakened monarchy was overthrown in 1910. The hardships of World War I battered the newly-established republic, and in 1926 its parliamentary democracy fell to a military coup. Antonio Salazar became prime minister in 1932, ruling as a virtual dictator until 1968. Salazar's favored treatment of the rich and his refusal to relinquish Portugal's colonies aggravated the economic situation. A 1974 coup toppled Salazar's successor and set up a military government, events that sparked violence among political parties. Almost all Portuguese colonies gained independence during the next two years. A democratic government was adopted in 1976; varying coalitions have since ruled the nation. Elections in 1987 resulted in the first majority government won by the Social Democrats.
~
ROMANIA
@
The majority population of Romania belongs to the Romanian Orthodox church and traces its roots to Latin-speaking Romans, Thracians, Slavs, and Celts. Minorities, concentrated in Transylvania and areas north and west of Bucharest, are mainly Roman Catholic Hungarians and Germans. Other minorities include Gypsies, Serbs, Croats, Ukrainians, Greeks, Turks, and Armenians. Almost all inhabitants speak Romanian, although minority groups often speak other languages.
#
When Romania became a Communist country in the 1940s, the government began to turn the country from agriculture to industry. The economy is now based on such major products as iron and steel. Although Romania remains less developed than many other European countries, it has experienced post-war growth in its gross national product. Most agriculture is collectivized, and corn and wheat are major crops. The terrain is marked by a south-to-northeast plateau that curves around several mountain ranges, including the Carpathians, found in the northern and central regions. The climate is continental, with cold, snowy winters and warm summers.
^
First colonized by the Dacians, a Thracian tribe, around the fourth century B.C., the area became the Roman province of Romania in the second century A.D. Invading Bulgars, Goths, Huns, Magyars, Slavs, and Tartars followed the Romans. Between 1250 and 1350, the independent Romanian principalities of Walachia and Moldavia emerged. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Ottoman Turks conquered the principalities, and following a Russian-Turkish war, Russians occupied the states. In 1861 Walachia and Moldavia were united as Romania, in 1878 they gained independence, and in 1881 Romania was proclaimed a kingdom. Oppression and a concentration of land and wealth among the aristocracy marked the nation's government, and in 1907 its army quelled a rebellion. In 1919, after a World War I alliance with the Allies, Romania gained Transylvania and other territories. Instability and dissatisfaction, spurred by worldwide economic depression, continued through the 1930s. With the cooperation of Romanian leadership, Germany occupied the country in World War II. In 1944 Soviet troops entered Romania, and the nation subsequently joined the Allies. A Communist government was established in 1945, and in 1947 the king was forced to abdicate and Romania officially became a Communist country. Initially Romania's policies were closely tied to those of the Soviet Union; but renewed nationalism in the sixties led to several independent policy decisions. Nicolae Ceausescu's twenty-four years of harsh, repressive leadership led to a popular revolt and his execution in 1989. An interim government plans elections in 1990.
~
SAN MARINO
@
San Marino, completely surrounded by Italy, has strong ethnic ties to the Italians, combining Latin, Adriatic, and Teutonic roots. Italian is the main language, and Roman Catholicism the major religion. Despite San Marino's similarities to Italy, its tradition of independence has given its citizens a strong national identity.
#
Close economic ties between San Marino and Italy have produced a mutually beneficial customs union: Italians have no customs restrictions at San Marino's borders, and San Marino receives annual budget subsidiary payments from Italy. Most San Marinese are employed in agriculture; livestock raising is a main activity, and crops include wheat and grapes. Tourism and the sale of postage stamps are major economic contributors, as is industry, which produces construction materials for export. Located in the Apennine Mountains, San Marino has a rugged terrain and a generally moderate climate.
^
San Marino is considered the world's oldest republic. Tradition has it that Marinus, a Christian stonecutter seeking religious freedom in a time of repressive Roman rule, founded the state in the fourth century A.D. Partly because of the protection afforded by its mountainous terrain, San Marino has been able to maintain continuous independence despite attempted invasions. In the 1300s the country became a republic, and the pope recognized its independent status in 1631. San Marino signed its first treaty of friendship with Italy in 1862. In its foreign relations, the country maintains a distinct identity and status.
~
SPAIN
@
The population of Spain is a mixture of ethnic groups from northern Europe and the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Spanish is the official language; however, several regional dialects of Spanish are commonly spoken. The Basque minority, one of the oldest surviving ethnic groups in Europe, lives mainly in the Pyrenees in northern Spain, preserving its own language and traditions. Since the 1978 constitution, Spain has not had an official religion, yet nearly all its people are Roman Catholic. Spain has a rich artistic tradition, blending Moorish and Western cultures.
#
Spain has benefited greatly from an economic-restructuring program that began in the 1950s. The nation has concentrated on developing industry, which now employs over 30 percent of the population. The chemical industry, high technology, electronics, and tourism are important sources of revenue. The agricultural contribution to the economy has declined to about half of peak production. Spain's terrain is mainly composed of a dry plateau area; mountains cover the northern section, and plains extend down the country's eastern coast. The climate in the eastern and southern regions is Mediterranean, while the northwest has more rainfall and less sunshine throughout the year.
^
Spain is among the oldest inhabited regions in Europe. A Roman province for centuries, Spain was conquered by the Visigoths in the A.D. 500s, only to change hands again in the 700s when the Arab-Berbers, or Moors, seized control of all but a narrow strip of northern Spain. Christian kings reclaimed the country from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries. Controlled by the three kingdoms of Navarre, Aragon, and Castile, Spain was united in the late 1400s under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. At the height of its empire, Spain claimed territory in North and South America, northern Africa, Italy, and the Canary Islands. However, a series of wars burdened Spain financially, and in the 1500s, under King Philip II, the country entered a period of decline. Throughout the 1700s and 1800s, the nation lost most of its colonial possessions through treaty or revolution. In 1936 a bitter civil war erupted between an insurgent fascist group and supporters of the republic. General Francisco Franco, leader of the successful insurgent army, ruled as dictator of Spain from the end of the war until his death in 1975. Spain enjoyed phenomenal economic growth during the 1950s and 1960s; however, that growth declined in the 1970s. Since Franco's death, King Juan Carlos has led the country toward a more democratic form of government.
~
SWEDEN
@
The most significant minorities in the largely urban Swedish population are Swedes of Finnish origin and a small number of Lapps. Sweden is also the home of immigrants from other Nordic countries, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey. Swedish is the main language, although Finns and Lapps often speak their own tongues. English is the leading foreign language, especially among students and younger people.
#
Sweden has one of the highest standards of living in the world. Taxes are also high, but the government provides exceptional benefits for most citizens, including free education and medical care, pension payments, four-week vacations, and payments for child care. The nation is industrial and bases its economy on its three most important natural resources--timber, iron ore, and water power. The iron and steel industry produces high-quality steel used in ball bearings, precision tools, agricultural machinery, aircraft, automobiles, and ships. Swedish farmers rely heavily on dairy products and livestock, and most farms are part of Sweden's agricultural-cooperative movement. Sweden's varied terrain includes mountains, forests, plains, and sandy beaches. The climate is temperate, with cold winters in the north. Northern Sweden lies in the ""Land of the Midnight Sun'' and experiences periods of twenty-four hours of daylight in summer and darkness in winter.
^
Inhabitants of what is now Sweden began to trade with the Roman Empire about 50 B.C. Sailing expeditions by Swedish Vikings began about A.D. 800. In the fourteenth century the kingdom came under Danish rule, but declared its independence in 1523. The Swedish king offered protection to the followers of Martin Luther, and Lutheranism was soon declared the state religion. By the late 1660s, Sweden had become one of the great powers of Europe; it suffered a military defeat by Russia in 1709, however, and gradually lost most of its European possessions. An 1809 constitution gave most of the executive power of the government to the king. Despite this, the power of the Parliament gradually increased, and parliamentary rule was adopted in 1917. A 1975 constitution reduced the king's role to a ceremonial one. Sweden remained neutral during both world wars. Except for 1976-82, when Sweden was run by a conservative coalition, the country has had a Socialist government.
~
SWITZERLAND
@
About seven hundred years ago, the Swiss began joining together for mutual defense, but preserved their regional differences in language and customs. The country has four official languages--German, French, and Italian--and the fourth, Romansch, is spoken by a minority. Dialects often differ from community to community. The population is concentrated on a central plain located between mountain ranges.
#
The Alps and Jura Mountains cover nearly 70 percent of Switzerland, making much of the land unsuited for agriculture but a good basis for a thriving tourist industry. The central plain contains rich cropland and holds Switzerland's major cities and manufacturing facilities, many specializing in high-quality, precision products. Switzerland is also an international banking and finance center. Straddling the ranges of the central Alps, Switzerland features mountains, hills, and plateaus. The temperate climate varies with altitude.
^
Helvetic Celts inhabited the area of present-day Switzerland when Julius Caesar conquered the region, annexing it to the Roman Empire. As the Roman Empire declined, northern and western Germanic tribes began a series of invasions, and in the 800s the region became part of the empire of the Frankish king Charlemagne. In 1291 leaders of the three Swiss cantons, or regions, signed an agreement declaring their freedom and promising mutual aid against any foreign ruler. The confederation was the beginning of modern Switzerland. Over the next few centuries Switzerland became a military power, expanding its territories until 1515, when it was defeated by France. Soon after, Switzerland adopted a policy of permanent neutrality. The country was again conquered by France during the French Revolution; however, after Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna guaranteed Switzerland's neutrality, a guarantee that has never been broken.
~
UNITED KINGDOM
@
The ancestry of modern Britons reflects many centuries of invasions and migrations from Scandinavia and the European continent. Today Britons are a mixture of Celtic, Roman, Anglo- Saxon, Norse, and Norman influences. English is the official language, although Celtic languages such as Welsh and Scottish Gaelic are also spoken. Anglican is the dominant religion in England, while many Scots practice Presbyterianism. A sizable minority is Roman Catholic. The population is primarily urban and suburban, with a significant percentage living in the southeastern corner of England.
#
A land of limited natural resources, the United Kingdom has relied on trading and, more recently, manufacturing to achieve economic strength. Access to the sea is a traditional economic and political asset. The country maintains a large merchant fleet, which at one time dominated world trade. The industrial revolution developed quickly in Great Britain, and the country continues to be a leading producer of transportation equipment, metal products, and other manufactured goods. Although climate and limited acreage have hindered agricultural development, intensive, mechanized farming methods have allowed the nation to produce half of its food supply. Livestock raising is especially important. Additional contributors to the country's industry are extensive deposits of coal and iron, which make mining important. London is well known as an international financial center. The United Kingdom includes Scotland, England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and several offshore islands. The varied terrain is marked by several mountain ranges, moors, rolling hills, and plains. The climate is tempered by the sea and is subject to frequent changes. Great Britain administers many overseas possessions.
^
Little is known of the earliest inhabitants of Britain, but evidence such as Stonehenge indicates the existence of a developed culture before the Roman invasion in the 50s B.C. Britain began to trade with the rest of Europe while under Roman rule. The Norman period after A.D. 1066 fostered the establishment of many cultural and political traditions that continue to be reflected in British life. Scotland came under the British Crown in 1603, and in 1707 England and Scotland agreed to unite as Great Britain. Ireland had been conquered by the early seventeenth century, and the 1801 British Act of Union established the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Although colonial and economic expansion had taken Great Britain to the Far East, America, Africa, and India, the nation's influence began to diminish at the end of the nineteenth century as the industrial revolution strengthened other nations. World War I significantly weakened the United Kingdom and during the period following World War II, which saw the demise of an empire, many colonies gained independence. Margaret Thatcher of the Conservative party has governed the country since 1979.
~
VATICAN CITY
@
The Vatican City, the smallest independent state in the world, is the administrative and spiritual center of the Roman Catholic church and home to the pope, the church's head. The population is composed of administrative and diplomatic workers of more than a dozen nationalities; Italians and Swiss predominate. A military corps known as the Swiss Guard also resides here. Roman Catholicism is the only religion. The official language is Italian, although acts of the Holy See are drawn up in Latin.
#
The Vatican City does not engage in commerce per se; however, it does issue its own coins and postage stamps. In addition, it is the destination of thousands of tourists and pilgrims each year. Lying on a hill west of the Tiber River, the Vatican City is an urban enclave in northwestern Rome, Italy. The Vatican City enjoys a mild climate moderated by the Mediterranean Sea.
^
For centuries the popes of the Roman Catholic church ruled the Papal States, an area across central Italy, which included Rome. The popes' temporal authority gradually was reduced to the city of Rome, which itself was eventually annexed by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870. Denying these rulings, the pope declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican, a status that lasted fifty-nine years. The Vatican City has been an independent sovereign state since 1929, when Italy signed the Treaty of the Lateran in return for papal dissolution of the Papal States. The pope heads all branches of government, though day-to-day responsibilities are delegated to staff members.
~
YUGOSLAVIA
@
The population of Yugoslavia is one of the most diverse in Eastern Europe and includes nearly twenty distinct ethnic groups, in addition to the main Serbian and Croatian groups. Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, and Macedonian are major languages. Religions are also diverse, and often divide along ethnic lines. Most Yugoslavs work in industry, resulting in a steady urban shift since World War II and a corresponding rise in the standard of living.
#
Since 1945, Yugoslavia's economy has made a successful transition from agriculture to industry. Once modeled on that of the Soviet Union, the economy today is somewhat decentralized, based on the theory of workers' self-management. Decisions on production, prices, and income are made to benefit society as a whole, though wealth has tended to concentrate in the highly industrialized north, resulting in increasing social tension. Agriculture also plays an economic part--aided by the moderate climate along the coast of the Adriatic Sea and stronger seasonal variations in the mountainous inland regions.
^
Yugoslavia has been inhabited for at least one hundred thousand years; its peoples have included Illyrians, Thracians, Greeks, Celts, and Romans. In A.D. 395 the Roman Empire was divided into the West Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, with the dividing line through present-day Yugoslavia. People in the western region became Roman Catholic and used the Roman alphabet, while Byzantines adopted the Eastern Orthodox faith and the Cyrillic alphabet. Slavic migrations led to the establishment of independent Slavic states such as Serbia and Croatia, and calls for Slavic unity began in the early 1800s. In 1914 a Slavic patriot assassinated Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and triggered World War I. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in 1918. The fighting encouraged King Alexander I to declare himself dictator in 1929 and change the new country's name to Yugoslavia, which was retained after Alexander's assassination in 1934. Germany and the other Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia during World War II and were opposed by a partisan army organized by Josip Broz Tito, who assumed leadership when Yugoslavia became a Communist republic in 1945. Tito's policy of nonalignment, the cornerstone of Yugoslavia's foreign policy, caused the Soviet Union to break off diplomatic relations from 1948 to 1955. United States aid from the 1940s to the 1960s encouraged a shift toward Western trade and broadened political and cultural exchanges as well. Since Tito's death in 1980, the country has been governed by a presidency rotating amongst the republics.
~
AFGHANISTAN
@
Afghanistan shares borders with the Soviet Union, China, India, Pakistan, and Iran. This crossroads position has created a population that is ethnically and linguistically diverse. Religion, however, plays a strong unifying role. Most Afghans are Muslim, and Islamic laws and customs determine lifestyles and beliefs, both religious and secular. The population is mainly rural, consisting primarily of farmers, and a small nomadic group.
#
The main force of Afghanistan's underdevelopment is agriculture and the recent civil war. Subsistence farming and animal husbandry account for much of the agricultural activity. Crop production has been aided by irrigation systems. A terrain of mountains and valleys, including the Hindu Kush, separates the desert region of the southwest from the more fertile north, an area of higher population density and the site of natural gas deposits. Increased development has made natural gas an important export. Winters are generally cold, and summers are hot and dry.
^
Once part of the Persian Empire, the area of present-day Afghanistan saw invasions by Persians, Macedonians, Greeks, Turks, Arabs, Mongols, and other peoples. An Arab invasion in A.D. 652 introduced Islam. In 1747 Afghan tribes led by Ahmad Shah Durrani united the area and established today's Afghanistan. Power remained with the Durrani tribe for more than two centuries. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Britain controlled Afghanistan's foreign affairs. A Durrani tribe member and former prime minister led a military coup in 1973 and set up a republic, ending the country's monarchal tradition. The new government's failure to improve economic and social conditions led to a 1978 revolution that established a Marxist government and brought Soviet aid. Intraparty differences and citizenry dissent resulted in a Soviet invasion in 1979. Fighting between government forces and the mujahidin (holy warrior) guerrillas continued. In 1988 the Soviets agreed to remove their military forces. Internal strife between factions, which has resulted in the deaths of many citizens, continues to plague the country.
~
BAHRAIN
@
Most residents of Bahrain are native-born Muslims, with the Sunni sect predominating in urban areas and Shiites in the countryside. Many of the country's thirty-three islands are barren, and population is concentrated in the capital city--Manama, on Bahrain Island--and on the smaller island of Muharraq. The oil economy has resulted in an influx of foreign workers and considerable westernization, and Bahrain is a Persian Gulf leader in free health care and education.
#
The onetime pearl-and-fish economy was reshaped by exploitation of oil and natural gas, careful management, and diversification. A major refinery processes crude oil piped from Saudi Arabia as well as the country's own oil, and Bahrain's aluminum industry is the Gulf's largest non-oil activity. Because of its location, Bahrain is able to provide Gulf countries with services such as dry docking, and the country has become a Middle Eastern banking center. Agriculture exists on northern Bahrain Island, where natural springs provide an irrigation source. Much of the state is desert. Summers are hot and dry and winters are mild.
^
From about 2000 to 1800 B.C. the area of Bahrain flourished as a center for trade. After early periods of Portuguese and Iranian rule, the al-Khalifa family came to power in the eighteenth century, and it has governed ever since. Bahrain became a British protectorate in the nineteenth century, and independence was gained in 1971. Friendly international relations and political allegiance to the Arab League characterize the current government.
~
BANGLADESH
@
Bangladesh's population is characterized by extremes. The people, mostly peasant farmers, are among Asia's poorest and most rural. With a relatively small area and a high birthrate, the country is also one of the world's most densely populated. Many Bangladeshis are victims of disease, floods, and ongoing medical and food shortages. Islam, the major religion, has influenced almost every aspect of life. Bangla is the official language.
#
Fertile flood plain soil is the chief resource of this mostly flat, river-crossed country, and farming is the main activity. Rice and jute are among the major crops. Farm output fluctuates greatly, however, subject to the frequent monsoons, floods, and droughts of a semitropical climate. Because of this and other factors, foreign aid, imports, and an emphasis on agriculture have not assuaged the continuing food shortages. Floods, which put 75 percent of the country under water, left twenty-five million people in dire straits.
^
Most of Bangladesh lies in eastern Bengal, an Asian region whose western sector encompasses India's Bengal province. Early religious influences in Bengal included Buddhist rulers in the eighth century and Hindus in the eleventh. In 1200 Muslim rule introduced the religion to which the majority of eastern Bengalis eventually converted, while most western Bengalis retained their Hindu beliefs. British control in India, beginning in the seventeenth century, expanded until all Bengal was part of British India by the 1850s. When British India gained independence in 1947, Muslim population centers were united into the single nation of Pakistan in an attempt to end Hindu- Muslim hostilities. More than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) separated West Pakistan, formed from northwest India, from East Pakistan, comprised mostly of eastern Bengal. The bulk of Pakistan's population resided in the eastern province and felt the west wielded political and economic power at its expense. A civil war began in 1971, and the eastern province declared itself an independent nation called Bangladesh, or ""Bengal nation.'' That same year, West Pakistan surrendered to eastern guerrillas joined with Indian troops. The state has seen political crises since independence, including two leader assassinations and several coups. In 1982 General Ershad took control in a bloodless coup, assuming the office of president in 1983. Buddhist tribal groups, which claim religious persecution, are agitating for autonomy.
~
BHUTAN
@
A mountainous terrain long isolated Bhutan from the outside world and limited internal mingling of its peoples. The population is ethnically divided into the Bhotia, Nepalese, and various tribes. Of Tibetan ancestry, the Bhotes are a majority and as such have determined the major religion, Buddhism, and language, Dzongkha, a Tibetan dialect. The Nepalese are mostly Hindu and speak Nepalese; tribal dialects diversify language further. A largely rural population, many villages grew up around dzongs, monastery fortresses built in strategic valley locations during Bhutan's past. Training programs have been instituted to improve the country's low literacy rate and skilled labor shortage.
#
Partially due to physical isolation, Bhutan has one of the world's least developed economies and remains dependent on foreign aid. There is potential for success, however. Forests cover much of the land, limiting agricultural area but offering opportunity for the expansion of forestry. Farming is concentrated in the more densely populated, fertile valleys of the Himalayas, and the country is self-sufficient in food production. The climate varies with altitude; the icy Himalayas in the north give way to temperate central valleys and a subtropical south.
^
Bhutan's early history remains mostly unknown, but it is thought that by the early sixteenth century, descendants of Tibetan invaders were ruling their lands from strategically located dzongs. In the 1600s a Tibetan lama consolidated the area and became political and religious leader. Proximity to and interaction with British India resulted in British control of Bhutan's foreign affairs in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In 1907 the current hereditary monarchy was established. India gained independence from Britain in 1947 and soon assumed the role of adviser in Bhutan's foreign affairs. Indian ties were strengthened in the late 1950s to counter Chinese influence. At the same time, modernization programs were instituted, improving primitive transportation and communication systems, and bringing Bhutan further into the twentieth-century mainstream.
~
BRUNEI
@
The majority of Brunei's population is Malay, with minorities of Chinese and indigenous peoples. Most Malays are Muslim, and the Chinese are mainly Christian or Buddhist. Many Chinese, although wealthy, are unable to become citizens due to language-proficiency exams and strict residency requirements. The standard of living is high because of Brunei's oil-based economy, yet wealth is not equally distributed.
#
Oil and natural gas are the economic mainstays, giving Brunei a high per capita gross domestic product. Much food is imported, however, and diversification is a current goal. Situated on northeastern Borneo, Brunei is generally flat and covered with dense rain forests. The climate is tropical.
^
Historical records of Brunei date back to the seventh century. The country was an important trading center, and by the sixteenth century the sultan of Brunei ruled Borneo and parts of nearby islands. In 1888 Brunei became a British protectorate, and in 1984, it gained independence from Great Britain. The nation is ruled by a sultan.
~
BURMA (Myanmar)
@
The population of Burma is highly diverse, with many ethnic groups including Tibetan-related Bamar, who compose the majority; Kayin, who inhabit mainly the south and east; and Thai-related Shan, found on the eastern plateaus. Diversity results in many languages, although Burmese predominates. Buddhist monasteries and pagodas dot the landscape, and minority religions include Christianity, indigenous beliefs, and Islam. The primarily rural population is concentrated in the fertile valleys and on the delta of the Irrawaddy River.
#
Fertile soils, dense woodlands, and mineral deposits provide a resource base for agriculture, forestry, and mining. Burma has been beset with economic problems, however, caused mainly by the destruction of World War II, as well as postindependence instability. Today agriculture continues as the economic mainstay. The hot, wet climate is ideal for rice production. In addition, dense forests provide for a timber industry, and resource deposits include petroleum and various minerals. Burma's economic future most likely depends on exploitation of natural resources and political stability. The terrain is marked by mountains, rivers, and forests, and the climate is tropical.
^
Burma's Chinese and Tibetan settlers were first united in the eleventh century. Independence ended with the invasion of Mongols led by Kublai Khan, followed by national unification in the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries. Annexation to British India in the nineteenth century ended Burma's monarchy. During World War II, Japanese occupation and subsequent Allied-Japanese conflicts caused much economic and physical damage. Burma officially became independent in 1948. After initial stability, the government was unable to withstand separatist and political revolts, and military rule alternated with civilian governments. In 1974, a new government was installed and a new constitution adopted. Yet another military coup in 1988 was widely protested, forcing concessions and the promise of elections from the military, which are scheduled for 1990.
~
CHINA
@
Population is concentrated in the east, and Han Chinese are the majority group. Zhuang, Hui, Uygur, Yi, Miao, Manchu, and Tibetan peoples compose minorities. Many Chinese languages are spoken, but the national language is Modern-- Standard Chinese, or Mandarin--based on a northern dialect. Following a Communist revolution in 1949, religious activity was discouraged. It is now on the increase, and religions include Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, plus Islam and Christianity. China ranks first in the world in population, and family-planning programs have been implemented to aid population control. With a recorded civilization going back about 3,500 years, China has contributed much to world culture.
#
Most economic progress dates from 1949, when the new People's Republic of China faced a starving, war-torn, and unemployed population. Industry is expanding, but agriculture continues as the major activity. Natural resources include coal, oil, natural gas, and minerals, many of which remain to be explored. A current economic plan focuses on growth in agriculture, industry, science and technology, and national defense. China's terrain is varied: two-thirds consists of mountainous or semiarid land, with fertile plains and deltas in the east. The climate is marked by hot, humid summers, while the dry winters are often cold.
^
China's civilization ranks among the world's oldest. The first dynasty, the Shang, began sometime during the second millennium B.C. Kublai Khan's thirteenth-century invasion brought China the first of its various foreign rulers. In the nineteenth century, despite government efforts to the contrary, foreign influence and intervention grew. The government was weakened by the Opium War with Britain in the 1840s; the Taiping Rebellion, a civil war; and a war with Japan from 1894 to 1895. Opposition to foreign influences erupted in the anti-foreign and anti-Christian Boxer Rebellion of 1900. After China became a republic in 1912, the death of the president in 1916 triggered the warlord period, in which conflicts were widespread and power was concentrated among military leaders. Attempts to unite the nation began in the 1920s with Sun Yat-sen's Nationalist party, initially allied with the Communist party. Under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek, the Nationalist party overcame the warlords, captured Beijing, and executed many Communists. Remaining Communists reorganized under Mao Zedong, and the Communist- Nationalist conflict continued, along with Japanese invasion and occupation. By 1949 the Communists controlled most of the country, and the People's Republic of China was proclaimed. Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan, proclaiming T'aipei as China's provisional capital. After Mao's death in 1976, foreign trade and contact expanded. In 1979 the United States recognized Beijing, rather than T'aipei, as China's capital. When a retrenchment of the government from liberalization erupted violently in student demonstrations in 1989, many people were killed or arrested. See also TAIWAN.
~
CYPRUS
@
Most Cypriots occupying the southern two thirds of the island are of Greek ancestry, and their religion, language, and general culture reflect this heritage. Family and religion are a dominant influence in the community. Decades of British rule had little impact.
#
Conflict between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots has severely disrupted the economy of the island. With foreign assistance, Greek Cypriots have made considerable progress, expanding traditional southern agriculture to light manufacturing and tourism. Known for its scenic beauty and tourist appeal, southern Cyprus is marked by a fertile southern plain bordered by the rugged Troodos Mountains to the southwest. Sandy beaches dot the coastline. The Mediterranean climate brings hot, dry summers and damp, cool winters.
^
History of Cyprus and North Cyprus follows NORTH CYPRUS.
~
CYPRUS, NORTH
@
The northern part of the island is occupied by Cypriots of Turkish ancestry who speak Turkish and are Sunni Muslims. The 1974 Turkish invasion resulted in a formal segregation of this settlement pattern. The Turkish Cypriot ancestors arrived on the island during the three centuries of Ottoman rule.
#
Since the partition of the island, North Cyprus has become somewhat isolated. Lacking in capital, experience, foreign aid, and official recognition, it remains agriculturally based and dependent upon Turkey for tourism, trade, and assistance. North Cyprus is dominated by the mostly barren Kyrenia Range.
^
In the Late Bronze Age--from 1600 to 1050 B.C.--a Greek culture flourished in Cyprus. Rule by various peoples followed, including Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Romans, Byzantines, French, and Venetians. The Ottoman Turks invaded in 1571. In the nineteenth century, Turkey ceded the island to the British as security for a loan. Although many Turks remained on Cyprus, the British declared it a crown colony in 1925. A growing desire for enosis, or union, with Greece led to rioting and guerrilla activity by Greek Cypriots. The Turkish government, opposed to absorption by Greece, desired separation into Greek and Turkish sectors. The present Greek government is committed to absolute separation between Greece and Cyprus. Cyprus became independent in 1960, with treaties forbidding either enosis or partition, but Greek- Turkish conflicts continued. A 1974 coup by pro- enosis forces led to an invasion by Turkey. The resulting partition runs east-west across the island dividing Nicosia, which serves as a capital for both countries. North Cyprus, which is not recognized internationally, maintains a separate government with a prime minister and a president.
~
HONG KONG
@
Hong Kong has a majority Chinese population. Cantonese, a Chinese dialect, is spoken by most of the people, and English and Chinese are the official languages. Major religions are Taoism, Christianity, and Buddhism. Hong Kong is one of the world's most densely populated areas.
#
Low taxes, duty-free status, an accessible location, and an excellent natural harbor have helped make Hong Kong an Asian center of trade, finance, manufacturing, and transportation. Situated on the coast of China, Hong Kong borders Guangdong province. The colony consists of the islands of Hong Kong and Lantau, the Kowloon Peninsula, and the New Territories, which include a mainland area and many islands. In addition to mountains, the New Territories contain some level areas suitable for agriculture, while the islands are hilly. The climate is tropical, with hot, rainy summers and cool, humid winters.
^
Inhabited since ancient times, Hong Kong came under Chinese rule around the third century B.C. In 1839 British opium smuggling led to the Opium War between Britain and China, and a victorious Britain received the island of Hong Kong in an 1842 treaty. In 1860 the British gained control of the Kowloon Peninsula, and in 1898 the New Territories came under British rule through a ninety-nine-year lease with China. Hong Kong will be returned to China in 1997 under a negotiated agreement whereby the present economic system will be retained for fifty years. Recent events in China, however, have made many residents uneasy about Hong Kong's future.
~
INDIA
@
India's population is composed of two main ethnic groups: the Indo-Aryans and the Dravidians. Found mostly in the north are the Indo-Aryans, a central Asian people who arrived in India around 1500 B.C., pushing the Dravidians to the south, where they remain concentrated today. A Mongoloid minority inhabits the mountains of the far north, and aboriginal groups live in the central forests and mountains. More than fourteen indigenous languages are spoken, as well as English, which is spoken by the majority of educated people. India is second only to China in population, and although Hindus are the religious majority, the country also has one of the world's largest Muslim populations. Christians, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists comprise additional religious minorities.
#
Economic conditions have improved since India became independent in 1947. Agriculture, upon which most Indians depend, is now more efficient, a result of modernization programs. Industry has expanded as well, and the country ranks high in its number of scientists and skilled laborers. Poverty, unemployment, and underemployment continue to plague the nation, however, partly due to rapid population growth and improved life expectancy. Many natural resources, including coal, iron ore, bauxite, and manganese, remain undeveloped. India comprises three land regions: the Himalayas along the northern border; the Gangetic plain, a fertile northern region; and the peninsula, made up mostly of the Deccan, a plateau region. The climate ranges from temperate to tropical monsoon.
^
India's civilization dates back to 2500 B.C. , when the Dravidians flourished in the region. Aryan tribes invaded about one thousand years later, bringing the indigenous beliefs that evolved into Hinduism, and various empires followed. In the sixth or fifth century B.C., Siddhartha Gautama, who came to be called Buddha, founded Buddhism, a major influence on Indian life until about A.D. 800. Invasions beginning around A.D. 450 brought the Huns, and during the seventh and eighth centuries Arab conquerors introduced Islam. The Mogul Empire, under a series of Muslim rulers, began in the 1500s, and the British East India Company established trading posts in the 1600s. By 1757 the East India Company had become India's major power, and by the 1850s the company controlled nearly all present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. An Indian rebellion in 1857 caused Britain to take over the East India Company's rule. Demands for independence increased after a controversial massacre of Indians by British troops in 1919. By 1920 Mohandas Gandhi had emerged as the leader of an independence campaign based on nonviolent disobedience and noncooperation. The nation gained independence in 1947, establishing Pakistan as a separate Muslim state because of Muslim-Hindu hostilities. Recent disputes included a border conflict with China that erupted into fighting in 1959 and 1962 and a disagreement with Pakistan over the mainly Muslim region of Kashmir. Internal dissension and a high birth rate continue to inhibit India's development. Foreign policy is based on nonalignment.
~
INDONESIA
@
Indonesia is the fifth most populous nation in the world. The majority of the people are of Malay stock, which includes several subgroups, such as Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, and coastal Malay. More than two hundred indigenous languages are spoken, but the official, unifying language is Indonesian. Most people live in small farm villages and follow ancient customs stressing cooperation. Muslim traders brought Islam to Indonesia, and most of the population is Muslim. Many Indonesians combine spirit worship with Islam or Christianity. Indonesia's rich cultural heritage includes many ancient temples.
#
Indonesia is a leading producer of petroleum in the Far East. The area also has large deposits of minerals and natural gas. Agriculture is still a major economic activity, and rice remains an important crop, though overpopulation threatens the economy and food supply. The nation's more than 13,600 islands form a natural barrier between the Indian and Pacific oceans, making the straits between the islands important for world trade and military strategy. Java, the most industrial and heavily populated island, is characterized by volcanic mountains and narrow fertile plains along the northern coast. Indonesia includes most of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Other major Indonesian islands are Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Irian Jaya (the western half of New Guinea), which also feature inland mountains and limited coastal plains. The climate is tropical, with seasonal monsoons.
^
Indonesian civilization is more than 2,500 years old and has produced two major empires with influence throughout Southeast Asia. The Portuguese arrived in the sixteenth century but were outnumbered by the Dutch, who eventually gained control of most of the islands and established a plantation colony. An independence movement began early in the twentieth century and slowly gained momentum. Japan encouraged Indonesian nationalism during World War II. Shortly after the Japanese surrendered in 1945, Indonesia proclaimed itself an independent republic. Economic and political instability led to an attempted Communist coup in 1965. The government has outlawed the Communist party and strengthened relations with the West, at the same time establishing trade talks with China. Concerns continue over reported human-rights abuses in East Timor.
~
IRAN
@
Most Iranians are of Aryan ancestry, descended from an Asiatic people who migrated to the area in ancient times. The Aryan groups include majority Persians and minority Gilani, Mazanderani, Kurds, Lur, Bakhtiari, and Baluchi. Turks are the major non-Aryan minority. Until 1935, when the shah officially changed its name, Iran was known as Persia. Farsi, or Persian, remains the main language. Nearly all Iranians are Muslim, mainly of the Shiite sect, and the country is an Islamic republic, with law based on Islamic teachings. Minority religious groups, especially Baha'is, have been victims of persecution. Due to aridity and a harsh mountain-and-desert terrain, the population is concentrated in the west and north.
#
Iran's previously rapid economic development has slowed as a result of a 1979 revolution and a war with Iraq. Small-scale farming, manufacturing, and trading appear to be current economic trends. Oil remains the most important export, although output has decreased due to changes in economic policy and other factors. Persian carpets also continue as elements of trade. Iran's terrain consists mainly of a central plateau marked by desert and surrounded by mountains; thus agriculture is limited, and the country remains dependent on imported food. The central region is one of the most arid areas on Earth, and summers throughout most of the country are long, hot, and dry, with higher humidity along the Persian Gulf and Caspian coast. Winters are cold in the mountains of the northwest, but mild on the plain. The Caspian coastal region is generally subtropical.
^
Iran's history is one of the world's oldest, with a civilization dating back several thousand years. Around 1500 B.C., Aryan immigrants began arriving from central Asia, calling the region Iran, or land of the Aryans, and splitting into two groups: the Medes and the Persians. In the sixth century B.C., Cyrus the Great founded the Persian, or Achaemenian, Empire, which came to encompass Babylonia, Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. Alexander the Great conquered the region in the fourth century B.C. Various dynasties followed, and Muslim Arabs invaded in the A.D. 600s and established Islam as the major religion. The following centuries saw Iran's boundaries expand and recede under various rulers, and increasing political awareness resulted in a 1906 constitution and parliament. In 1908 oil was discovered in the region, and modernization programs began during the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, who came to power in 1925. Despite Iran's declared neutrality in World War II, the Allies invaded, obtaining rights to use the country as a supply route to the Soviet Union. The presence of foreign influences caused nationalism to increase sharply after the war. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi--who succeeded his father, Reza Shah Pahlavi, as shah--instituted social and economic reforms during the sixties, although many Muslims felt the reforms violated religious law, and resented the increasing Western orientation of the country and the absolute power of the shah. Led by Muslim leader Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, revolutionaries seized the government in 1979, declaring Iran an Islamic republic based upon fundamental Islamic principles. Khomeini remained the religious leader of Iran until his death in 1989. In 1990 Iran elected the first president of the republic. The country has been involved for many years in conflicts in Lebanon and the Persian Gulf. A cease-fire halted the war with Iraq in 1988.
~
IRAQ
@
Descendants of the founders of one of the world's oldest civilizations inhabit Iraq. Most Iraqis are Muslim Arabs and Arabic speaking. The minority Kurds, also mainly Muslim, are concentrated in the northwest; speak their own language, Kurdish; and follow a non-Arab lifestyle. Kurdish demands for self-rule have led to occasional rebellion.
#
Oil is the mainstay of Iraq's economy, and nearly all economic development has focused on the petroleum industry, nationalized in the 1970s. Despite its oil wealth, the Iraqi economy, like the Iranian, has been drained by the continuing Iran-Iraq war. Most farmland lies near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The terrain is marked by northeastern mountains, southern and western deserts, and the plains of upper and lower Iraq, which lie between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The climate is generally hot and dry.
^
Civilizations such as the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Parthian flourished in the area of the Tigris and Euphrates in ancient times. Once known as Mesopotamia, the region was the setting for many biblical events. After coming under Persian rule in the sixth century B.C., Mesopotamia fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. Invading Arabs brought the Muslim religion in the seventh century A.D., and for a time Baghdad was the capital and cultural center of the Arab empire. Thirteenth-century Mongol invaders were followed by Ottoman Turks in the sixteenth century. Ottoman rule continued, and following a British invasion during World War I, Mesopotamia became a British mandate at the end of the war. In 1921 the monarchy of Iraq was established, and independence was gained in 1932. Iraq and other nations formed the Arab League in 1945 and participated in a war against Israel in 1948. Opposition to monarchical rule increased during the 1950s; and after a 1958 military coup, the country was declared a republic. Instability, evidenced by coups, continued into the 1970s. The political climate was further complicated by occasional uprisings by Kurds demanding autonomy. War with Iran continued intermittently through the 1980s with heavy losses on both sides, and the countries agreed to a cease-fire in 1988.
~
ISRAEL
@
Most Israelis are Jewish immigrants or descendants of Jews who settled in the region in the late 1800s. The two main ethnic groups are the Ashkenazim of central and eastern European origin and the Sephardim of the Mediterranean and Middle East. The non-Jewish population is predominantly Arab and Muslim, and many Palestinians inhabit the Israeli-occupied West Bank, whose status is still in dispute. Hebrew and Arabic are the official languages, and both are used on documents and currency. Conflict between conservative and liberal Jewish groups has spilled over into the nation's political life.
#
Despite drastic levels of inflation and a constant trade deficit, Israel has experienced continuous economic growth. Skilled labor supports the market economy based on services, manufacturing, and commerce. Taxes are a major source of revenue, as are grants and loans from other countries, and income from tourism. The country is poor in natural resources, but through improved irrigation and soil conservation, Israel now produces much of its own food. Because of its limited natural resources, Israel must import most of the raw materials it needs for industry. The region's varied terrain includes coastal plains, central mountains, the Jordan Rift Valley, and the desert region of the Negev. Except in the Negev, the climate is temperate.
^
Israel comprises much of the historic region of Palestine, known in ancient times as Canaan and the site of most biblical history. Hebrews arrived in this region around 1900 B.C. The area experienced subsequent immigration and invasion by diverse peoples, including Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. In 63 B.C. it became part of the Roman Empire, was renamed Judaea and finally, Palestine. In the A.D. 600s, invading Arabs brought Islam to the area, and by the early 1500s, when Ottoman Turks conquered the region, Muslims comprised a majority. During the late 1800s, as a result of oppression in eastern Europe, many Jews immigrated to Palestine, hoping to establish a Jewish state. This movement, called Zionism, and the increasing Jewish population, led to Arab-Jewish tensions. Turkey sided with Germany in World War I, and after the war the Ottoman Empire collapsed. Palestine became a mandated territory of Britain in 1920. Jewish immigration and Arab-Jewish hostility increased during the years of Nazi Germany. Additional unrest arose from conflicting interpretations of British promises and the terms of the mandate. In 1947 Britain turned to the United Nations for help, and in 1948 the nation of Israel was established. Neighboring Arab countries invaded immediately, and war ensued, during which Israel gained some land. A truce was signed in 1949, but Arab-Israeli wars broke out periodically throughout the fifties, sixties, and seventies. Israel signed a peace treaty with Egypt in 1979, annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, and returned the Sinai to Egypt the following year. The years since have seen increasing trouble with the Palestinian refugee problem and the administration of the occupied territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.
~
JAPAN
@
The Japanese constitute Japan's major ethnic group, while minorities include Koreans and Chinese. Shintoism and Buddhism are the principal religions. Almost all the population lives on the coastal plains. Japan's culture blends East and West, with karate, tea ceremonies, and kimonos balanced by baseball, fast food, and business suits. Although its arts have been greatly influenced by China, Japan has developed distinctive music, literature, and painting.
#
One of the world's leading industrial powers, Japan is remarkable for its economic growth rate since World War II, considering it has few natural resources. It has also become famous for its innovative technology and continues to be a major user of robots in industry. Manufacturing is the basis of the economy, and Japan is a leading producer of ships, machinery, cars, and electronic equipment. Its chemical, iron, and steel industries are extremely profitable. Agriculture's part in the economy is small, since little of the rugged island terrain is arable. Fishing still plays a significant role in Japan's economy, though exports in this area have not been as high in recent years. Overseas trade has expanded rapidly since the 1960s, as Japan requires raw materials for its many industries. Trade barriers and the competitiveness of Japanese products overseas have led to trade deficits among Western nations. Japan's mountainous terrain includes both active and dormant volcanoes; earthquakes occasionally occur. The climate ranges from subtropical to temperate.
^
Legend states that Japan's first emperor was descended from the sun goddess and came to power around 600 B.C. The arrival of Buddhism, Confucianism, and new technologies from China in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. revolutionized society. Feuding nobles controlled Japan between 1192 and 1867 and ruled as shoguns, or generals, in the name of the emperor. The warrior class, or samurai, developed early in this period. The arrival of Europeans in the sixteenth century caused fear of an invasion among the shoguns, and in the 1630s they dissolved all foreign contacts. Japan's isolation lasted until 1854, when Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States opened the nation to the West with a show of force. The subsequent Meiji Restoration modernized Japan by adopting Western technologies and legal systems, and by stressing industrialization and education. Japan embarked on military expansion in the late nineteenth century, annexing Korea in 1910 and adding to its holdings after participating in World War I as a British ally. It occupied Manchuria in 1931 and invaded China in 1937. As part of the Axis powers in World War II, Japan attacked United States military bases in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in 1941. After the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan surrendered. Allied forces occupied the nation until 1952. By that time the Japanese approved a constitution that shifted political power from the emperor to the people and also abolished the military. In the years since, Japan has emerged as one of the world's fastest growing economies.
~
JORDAN
@
Most Jordanians are Arabs, but there are Circassian, Armenian, and Kurdish minorities, as well as a small nomadic population, the Bedouins, in desert areas. A large number of Jordanians are Palestinian refugees, displaced by Arab-Israeli wars, who have been granted citizenship by the government. Many Palestinians also live on the West Bank, a disputed area occupied by Jordan until Israel gained control in 1967. Arabic is the official language, and most people are Sunni Muslim, legacies of the Muslim conquest in A.D. 600s.
#
A nation with few natural resources, limited rainfall, and little arable land, Jordan has suffered further economic damage from an influx of refugees and the chronic political instability of the Middle East. In a 1967 war with Israel, Jordan lost the economically active West Bank, which made up about half the country's farmland. Agriculture remains the most important activity, and tourism has helped boost a weak economy that relies heavily on foreign aid and investment from the United States and Arab nations. There is some light industry and mining. The Jordan River divides Jordan into the West Bank and the East Bank, and the terrain is marked by deserts, mountains, and rolling plains. The climate ranges from Mediterranean in the west to desert in the east.
^
Jordan is the site of one of the world's oldest settlements, dating back to about 8000 B.C. The area came under the rule of the Hebrews, Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and, around A.D. 636 Arab Muslims. Rule by the Ottoman Turks began in the sixteenth century, and in World War I Arab armies helped the British defeat Turkey. At the end of the war present-day Israel and Jordan became the British mandate of Palestine, which in 1922 was divided into the mandates of Transjordan, lying east of the Jordan River, and Palestine, lying to the west. Transjordan gained full independence in 1946. In 1948 the Palestine mandate created Israel, and Arab-Israeli fighting ensued. After capturing the West Bank, Transjordan was renamed Jordan in 1949. During the Arab-Israeli Six-Day War in 1967, this region and the Jordanian section of Jerusalem fell to Israel. After each war, Jordan's Palestinian-refugee population grew. A 1970 civil war pitted the government against Palestinian guerrillas, who, like Jordan, desired control of the West Bank. The guerrillas were expelled following the war, but subsequent Arab-Israeli hostilities led to Jordan's recognition of the Palestine Liberation Organization. In 1988, Jordan relinquished all claims to the Israeli-held West Bank area, although it continues to be involved in discussions on the fate of the Palestinians. Jordan is a constitutional monarchy headed by a king.
~
KAMPUCHEA (Cambodia)
@
The Khmer, one of the oldest peoples in Southeast Asia, constitute the major ethnic group in Kampuchea. The population has declined significantly since the mid-1970s due to war, famine, human-rights abuses, and emigration. Because of an urban-evacuation campaign initiated by the Khmer Rouge, Kampuchea's previous regime, most Kampucheans live in rural areas, working as farmers or laborers. Although the new government does not encourage religion (an activity often punished by death during the Khmer Rouge era), the practice of Buddhism, the main religion, is on the rise.
#
Kampuchea's flat central region and wet climate make it well suited for rice production. Along with rubber, rice was the mainstay of the economy before the seventies, but the Vietnam and civil wars all but destroyed agriculture. This sector of the economy has begun to recover recently, but a shortage of skilled labor, combined with the effects of war, have held back industry. The terrain is marked by the central plain, forests, and mountains in the south, west, and along the Thai border. The climate is tropical, with high rainfall and humidity.
^
Kampuchea traces its roots to the Hindu kingdoms of Funan and Chenla, which reigned in the early centuries A.D. The Angkor Empire dominated until the fifteenth century, incorporating much of present-day Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam and constructing the stone temples of Angkor Wat, considered one of Southeast Asia's greatest architectural achievements. By 1431 the Siamese had overrun the region, and subsequent years saw the rise of the Siamese, Vietnamese, and Lao. By the mid-1700s Kampuchea's boundaries approximated those of today. During the 1800s, as French control in Indochina expanded, the area became a French protectorate. Kampuchea gained independence in 1953 under King Sihanouk, who, after changing his title to ""prince,'' became prime minister in 1955 and head of state in 1960. In 1970, after Sihanouk was ousted, Lon Nol was installed as prime minister, and the monarchy of Kampuchea changed to the Khmer Republic. During this time the Vietnam War spilled over the Khmer Republic's borders, as United States forces made bombing raids against what they claimed were North Vietnamese bases. Resulting anti-American sentiment gave rise to discontent with Lon Nol's pro-United States regime. The Khmer Communists, or Khmer Rouge, seized power in 1975 and, led by Pol Pot, exiled most Kampucheans to the countryside. An estimated three million died under the Khmer Rouge, many were executed because they were educated or had links to the former government. Vietnamese troops supported by some Kampuchean Communists invaded Kampuchea in late 1978, and by early 1979 they had overthrown the Khmer Rouge. Withdrawal of Vietnam in 1989 has renewed fears that the Khmer Rouge may regain power.
~
KOREA, NORTH
@
Despite a history of invasions, North Korea has a homogeneous population with virtually no minorities. Several dialects of Korean are spoken, and North Koreans use the Hankul, or Korean, alphabet exclusively. Korean religions have included Shamanism and Buddhism with Chondoist sects, though the government discourages religious activity. Urban population has grown rapidly since 1953 due to an emphasis on manufacturing. The nation remains more sparsely populated than South Korea.
#
The division of the Korean peninsula after World War II left North Korea with most of the industry and natural resources but little agricultural land and few skilled workers. The country has succeeded in becoming one of the most industrialized nations in Asia and in overcoming its agricultural problems. Most industry is government owned, and mines produce a variety of minerals. Farming is collectivized, and output has been aided by irrigation and other modern practices. The Soviet Union and China aided North Korea's development, but the theory of self-reliance was the government's guiding principle. A central mountainous region is bounded by coastal plains, and the climate is temperate.
^
History of North and South Korea follows SOUTH KOREA.
~
KOREA, SOUTH
@
The homogeneous quality of South Korea's population is similar to that of North Korea. Population density, however, is much greater in South Korea, where two million Koreans migrated following World War II. The major language, Korean, is written predominantly in the Hankul, or Korean, alphabet, with some Chinese characters. Buddhism is practiced by most South Koreans, although Confucianism has influenced much of life.
#
South Korea was traditionally the peninsula's agricultural zone, and following the 1945 partition of the country, the south was left with little industry and few resources but abundant manpower. The economy has advanced rapidly since 1953, and today agriculture and industry are of almost equal importance. Rice, barley, and beans are principal crops; machinery and textiles are significant manufactured products. Central mountains give way to plains in the south and west, and the climate is temperate.
^
Korea's strategic location between Russia, China, and Japan has made it prey to foreign powers. China conquered the northern part of the peninsula in 108 B.C. , influencing culture, religion, and government. Mongols controlled Korea for most of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The rule of the Yi dynasty lasted from 1392 to 1910, when Japan annexed Korea. In 1945, following Japan's defeat in World War II, Soviet troops occupied northern Korea while the United States military occupied the south. The Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain tried to aid unification of the country but failed. The Soviets opposed a subsequent plan for United Nations- supervised elections. Separate governments were formed in 1948: the northern Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the southern Republic of Korea. Both governments claimed the peninsula, and relations became strained. After several border clashes, North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. Chinese Communists fought on the side of North Korea, and United States/United Nations forces aided the south. An armistice ended the war in 1953, but a permanent peace treaty has never been signed. Both countries continue to claim the entire peninsula. Sporadic fighting has broken out between the north and south in recent years, and tense relations have stalled steps toward reunification. North Korea. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea was established in 1948, several months after the formation of South Korea. The country incurred about 2.5 million casualties during the war with South Korea. Following the war, the government moved quickly to modernize industry and the military; North Korea maintains one of the world's largest armies. Despite its ties to the Soviet Union and China, North Korea strives for an independent foreign policy based on self-reliance. South Korea. The Republic of Korea was established on August 15, 1948. The country has since experienced a presidential overthrow, military rule, and a presidential assassination. In 1980 it adopted its fifth constitution since 1948, which initiated the Fifth Republic. Students have since pressed for free elections, withdrawal of United States troops, and reunification with North Korea.
~
KUWAIT
@
Kuwait's recent prosperity has drawn emigrants from the Persian Gulf and beyond, giving it a diverse population; there are Palestinian, Iranian, and Pakistani minorities. The population has risen dramatically since the thirties, when the oil industry began. Arabic is the official language; English is also taught and widely spoken. Almost all residents of Kuwait observe Islam, the state religion. Most belong to the Sunni branch, but there is a sizable Shiite community.
#
The economy centers on the largely government-controlled petroleum industry. Kuwait is one of the world's largest oil producers, and its oil reserves are among the world's most extensive. However, oil production and refining require a limited work force, and Kuwait has recently tried to diversify to create more jobs. Commercial fishing is gaining importance in Kuwait's economy. Because of the desert terrain, agriculture is marginal. Kuwait's climate is subtropical.
^
Arab nomads settled Kuwait Bay around A.D. 1700. The Al Sabah dynasty has ruled the nation since the mid-1700s. Alarmed by Turk and Arabic expansion, in 1899 Kuwait signed an agreement with Britain to guarantee Kuwait's defense. Drilling for oil began in 1936, and by 1945 Kuwait had become a major exporter. Independence came in 1961. Iraq immediately made a claim to the state but was discouraged from attacking by the arrival of British troops. Official border agreements have never been made between Kuwait and Iraq. Kuwait briefly cut off oil shipments to Western nations in retaliation for their support of Israel in the 1967 and 1973 Arab-Israeli wars. Kuwait's remarkable oil wealth, which transformed it from a poor nation into an affluent one, has enabled it to offer its citizens a wide range of benefits and to aid other Arab states. Poised at the tip of the Persian Gulf, Kuwait must always be sensitive to the interests of its many neighbors. Kuwait allied itself with Iraq in the 1980- 1988 Iran/Iraq war.
~
LAOS
@
Laos is populated by many ethnic groups, each with its own customs, religion, and language. Its history of culturally diverse communities is mirrored in the political divisions of recent years. The Lao are numerically and politically dominant, and Lao is the official language. Small Vietnamese and Chinese minorities exist. Most of Lao's residents are rice farmers.
#
Years of warfare, a landlocked position, and a poor transportation system have hindered the development of Laos's economy. Although agriculture is the basis of the economy, very little of the fertile land is cultivated. Substantial mineral deposits and large timber reserves also have not been exploited to their potential. Manufacturing is limited, partly because of an unskilled work force. Situated in a mountainous, densely-forested region, Laos has a tropical climate and experiences seasonal monsoons.
^
By A.D. 900 the forerunners of the Lao had arrived from southern China. The first united Lao kingdom was founded in 1353 and included much of modern Thailand. It dissolved into three rival states by the early 1700s, setting the stage for interference by Burma, Vietnam, and Sigam, present- day Thailand. In 1899 France made Laos part of French Indochina. Laos gained some autonomy in 1949, but this period saw the growth of Communist and anti-Communist factions whose rivalry would prevent any unified government until 1975. Although Geneva peace agreements declared Laos neutral in 1954 and 1962, the nation became increasingly embroiled in the Vietnam War as both sides in that conflict entered Laos. A protracted civil war began in 1960 between the Pathet Lao, a Communist faction aided by the North Vietnamese, and government forces backed by the Thai and South Vietnamese. A cease-fire was signed in 1973 and a new coalition government was formed a year later. Following Communist victories in Vietnam and Kampuchea, the Pathet Lao gained control in 1975 and established the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Opposed to Communist rule, many Lao fled the country for refuge in Thailand and the United States. Laos retains close ties with Vietnam.
~
LEBANON
@
Traditionally home to many diverse groups, Lebanon has recently been shaken by the conflicting demands of its population. Almost all Lebanese are of Arab stock, and Arabic and French are the official languages. Palestinian refugees have settled here since the creation of Israel in 1948, many of them living in refugee camps. Lebanon's religious makeup is notable for its variety, encompassing seventeen recognized sects. Islam is now the majority religion, although Christianity continues to be a strong presence. Muslims are divided among the majority Shiite, minority Sunni, and Druze sects, while most Christians are Maronites.
#
Situated strategically between the West and the Middle East, Lebanon has long been a center of commerce. Its economy is fueled by the service sector, particularly banking. Prolonged fighting, beginning with the 1975 civil war, has greatly damaged all economic activity. Much of the work force is engaged in agriculture, and various crops are grown. The coastal area consists of a plain, behind which lie mountain ranges separated by a fertile valley. The climate is Mediterranean.
^
The Phoenicians settled parts of Lebanon about 3000 B.C. and were followed by Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Greek, and Roman rulers. Christianity came to the area during the Byzantine Empire, around A.D. 325, and Islam followed in the seventh century. In 1516 Lebanon was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. Between the end of World War I, when the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and 1943, when Lebanon became independent, the nation was a French mandate. After independence, Muslims and Christians shared government power. Opposition to Lebanon's close ties to the West led to a 1958 insurrection, which United States marines put down at the government's request. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), a group working to establish a Palestinian state, began operating from bases in Lebanon. This led to clashes with Israel in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The presence of the PLO divided Muslims, who generally supported it, from Christians, who opposed it. The increasing Muslim population also demanded a greater voice in the government. Civil war between Muslims and Christians broke out in 1975, and fighting slowed the next year with the requested aid of Syrian deterrent forces. Internal instability continued, however, along with Israeli-Palestinian hostilities. In June 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon, driving the PLO from Beirut and the south. Hundreds of Palestinian refugees were killed by the Christian Lebanese forces in September. A multinational peacekeeping force left after falling victim to terrorist attacks. Israel began a gradual withdrawal from Lebanon in 1985, but maintains a buffer zone in southern Lebanon. Syrian troops also occupy parts of the country. International attempts to reconcile warring factions have been unsuccessful.
~
MACAO
@
Situated on the southeastern China coast, 17 miles (27.4 km) west of Hong Kong, Macao is populated almost entirely by Chinese. An overseas province of Portugal, the island includes people of Portuguese and mixed Chinese-Portuguese descent. Several Chinese dialects are widely spoken, and Portuguese is the official language. Buddhism is Macao's principal religion; a small percentage of its population are Roman Catholics.
#
Tourism, gambling, and light industry help make up Macao's economy; however, its leading industries are textiles and light manufacturing, which employ the majority of the labor force. Macao has been likened to Hong Kong because of its textile exports, yet it remains a heavy importer, relying on China for drinking water and much of its food supply. The province consists of the city of Macao, located on a peninsula, and the nearby islands of Taipa and Coloane. The climate is maritime tropical, with cool winters and warm summers.
^
Macao became a Portuguese trading post in 1557. It flourished as the midpoint for trade between China and Japan but declined when Hong Kong became a trading power in the mid-1800s. Macao remained a neutral port during World War II and was economically prosperous. Although the government is nominally directed by Portugal, any policies relating to Macao are subject to China's approval. Macao is the oldest European settlement in the Far East. It will be returned to China in 1999 under a negotiated agreement whereby the present capitalist system will be maintained for 50 years.
~
MALAYSIA
@
Malaysia's location at one of Southeast Asia's maritime crossroads has left it with a diverse population, including Malays, Chinese, Indians, and native non-Malay groups. The mostly rural Malays dominate politically, while the predominantly urban Chinese are very active in economic life. Considerable tension exists between the two groups. Although most Malays speak Malay and practice Islam, Malaysia's ethnic groups have resisted assimilation; Chinese, Indian, and Western languages and beliefs are also part of the culture. Most Malaysians live in Peninsular Malaysia.
#
The economy is one of the healthiest in the region, supported by multiple strengths in agriculture, mining, forestry, and fishing. The nation is one of the world's leading producers of rubber, palm oil, and tin, and one of the Far East's largest petroleum exporters. Manufacturing is also being developed. Malaysia consists of the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula and the states of Sarawak and Sabah on northern Borneo. The land is characterized by swampy areas, mountains, and rain forests. The climate is tropical and very humid.
^
The Malay Peninsula has been inhabited since the late Stone Age. Hindu and Buddhist influences were widespread from the ninth through the fourteenth centuries A.D., after which Islam was introduced. In 1511 the Portuguese seized Melaka, a trading center, but were soon replaced, first by the Dutch in 1641 and then by the British in 1795. By the early 1900s, Britain was in control of present-day Malaysia and Singapore, the areas which were occupied by Japan during World War II. Following the war, the Federation of Malaya was created, a semiautonomous state under British authority. A guerrilla war ensued, waged by Chinese Communists and others who opposed the British. The country gained full independence in 1963 with the unification of Malaysia. Singapore seceded in 1965. As a result of the impact of large numbers of Vietnamese refugees, Malaysia announced that as of April 1989 it could accept no more.
~
MALDIVES
@
Most Maldivians are descended from Sinhalese peoples from Sri Lanka; southern Indians, or Dravidians; and Arabs. Nearly all Maldivians are Sunni Muslims and speak Divehi. The population is concentrated on Male, the capital island.
#
The nation draws on its advantages as a union of twelve hundred islands to fuel its economy: tourism, shipping, and fishing are the mainstays. With limited arable land and infertile soil, agriculture is marginal. The Maldives, flat coral islands, form a chain of nineteen atolls. Seasonal monsoons mark the tropical climate.
^
The Maldives are believed to have been originally settled by southern Indian peoples. Arab sailors brought Islam to the islands in the twelfth century A.D. Although a Muslim sultanate remained in power with only two interruptions from 1153 until 1968, the Portuguese and Dutch controlled the islands intermittently between the 1500s and the 1700s. The Maldives were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, when they achieved independence. They declared the country a republic three years later. The Republic of Maldives is nonaligned and maintains close ties with other Islamic nations.
~
MONGOLIA
@
Mongols, a central Asian people, make up the vast majority of Mongolia's population. Khalkha Mongol is the predominant language. Turkic-speaking Kazakhs, as well as Russians and Chinese, comprise minorities. Tibetan Buddhism was once the most common religion; however, the government now discourages religious practice. The traditional nomadic way of life is becoming less common, as recent government policies have led to urbanization and settled agriculture.
#
Mongolia's economy, long based on the raising of livestock, has been shaped by the ideal grazing land found in most of the country. But significant economic changes have occurred since 1924, including the collectivization and modernization of farming, the introduction of industry, and the exploitation of mineral resources. Although dependent on Soviet aid, Mongolia has made considerable progress toward diversifying and developing its economy. Mongolia's terrain varies from mountains in the north and west to steppe in the east and desert in the south. Located in the heart of Asia, remote from any moderating body of water, Mongolia has a rigorous continental climate with little precipitation.
^
Mongolian tribes were united under the warlord Genghis Khan around A.D. 1200, and he and his successors built one of history's largest land empires. In 1691 the Manchu dynasty of China subdued Outer Mongolia, as the area was then known, but allowed the Mongol rulers autonomy. Until the Mongols ousted the Chinese in 1911, Outer Mongolia remained a Chinese province. In 1912 the state accepted Russian protection but was unable to prevent a subsequent Chinese advance, and in 1919 Outer Mongolia again became a Chinese province. In 1921 a combined Soviet and Mongolian force defeated Chinese and Belorussian, or White Russian, troops, and the Mongolian People's Republic was declared in 1924. A mutual-assistance pact was signed by Mongolia and Russia in 1966. In 1989, the Soviets agreed to withdraw most of their troops from Mongolia.
~
NEPAL
@
Nepal's mixed population results from migrations over the centuries from India, Tibet, and central Asia. Most of Nepal's ruling families have been of Indian descent, and Nepali, the official language, is derived from Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language. Although the majority of the population practices Hinduism, Nepal is the birthplace of Buddha and has been greatly influenced by Buddhism as well. The importance of both religions is reflected in the more than twenty-seven hundred shrines in the Kathmandu Valley. Most Nepalese are rural farmers.
#
Because of geographic remoteness and a political policy of isolation lasting until the 1950s, Nepal's economy is one of the least developed in the world. Agriculture, concentrated chiefly in the south, is the most significant activity, even though most of Nepal is covered by the Himalayas, the world's highest mountains. This range--which includes Mount Everest, the world's highest peak--has made tourism increasingly lucrative. Nepal has potential in hydroelectricity and forestry, but inadequate transportation routes, overpopulation, and deforestation present obstacles to development. Nepal has received financial aid from many nations, partly because of its strategic location between India and China. The climate varies from subtropical in the flat, fertile south to temperate in the central hill country. Himalayan summers are cool and winters severe.
^
Several small Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms had emerged in the Kathmandu Valley by about A.D. 300. These states were unified in the late 1700s by the founder of the Shah dynasty. The Rana family wrested control from the Shahs in 1846 and pursued an isolationist course, which thwarted foreign influence but stunted economic growth. Opposition to the Ranas mounted during the 1930s and 1940s, and in 1951 the Shah monarchy was restored by a revolution. In 1962 the king established a government that gave the crown dominance and abolished political parties. A 1980 referendum narrowly upheld this system.
~
OMAN
@
Most of Oman's population is Arab, Arabic speaking, and belongs to the Ibadite sect of Islam. Other forms of Islam are also practiced. There is a significant foreign community that includes Indians, Pakistanis, and East African blacks. Many of them are guest workers in the oil industry.
#
Although oil production is the economic mainstay, Oman's reserves are not as vast as those of some other Arab states, and the government is seeking to diversify. The mining of natural gas and copper is being developed, as are agriculture and fishing. A central position in the politically volatile Persian Gulf and revolutionary internal strife have led Oman to devote a considerable portion of its budget to defense. Land regions include a coastal plain and interior mountains and desert. Oman's land borders are undefined and in dispute. A desert climate prevails over most areas except the coast, which has humid conditions.
^
Islam came to Muscat and Oman, as the nation was known before 1970, in the seventh century A.D. The Portuguese gained control of parts of the coast in 1508 but were driven out in 1650 by the Arabs. At about this time the hereditary sultanate--which absorbed the political power formerly held by the Ibadite religious leaders, or imams--was founded. Close relations with Britain, cemented in a 1798 agreement and subsequent treaties, have continued to the present. Conflicts between the sultan and Omanis, who wanted to be ruled exclusively by their imam, erupted intermittently after 1900, and in 1959 the sultan defeated the rebels with British help and outlawed the office of imam. Marxist insurgency was put down in 1975. Sultan Qaboos bin Said, who overthrew his father's regime in 1970, has liberalized some policies and worked to modernize the nation. Oman is a moderate, pro-Western Arab state.
~
PAKISTAN (Including part of Jammu and Kashmir)
@
Pakistan's varied ethnicity is the product of centuries of incursions by different races. Today each people is concentrated in a different region and speaks its own language; Urdu, the official language, is not widely spoken. The Punjabis compose the largest ethnic group and traditionally have been influential in government and commerce. Virtually all of Pakistan, which was created as a Muslim homeland, follows Islam. Spurred by poor living conditions and a lack of jobs, many Pakistanis work abroad.
#
Despite recent progress in manufacturing, agriculture remains the economic mainstay. Improvement in farming techniques has increased productivity. Government planning and foreign assistance have aided all sectors, but Pakistan remains troubled by population growth, unskilled labor, a trade deficit, and an influx of refugees fleeing the war in Afghanistan. Pakistan's terrain includes mountains, fertile plains, and desert. The climate is continental, with extremes in temperature.
^
Around 2500 B.C., the Indus Valley civilization flourished in the area of modern Pakistan. Various empires and immigrants followed, including Aryans, Persians, and Greeks. Invading Arabs introduced Islam to the region in the A.D. 700s. In the 1500s, the Mogul Empire of Afghanistan came to include nearly all of present-day Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, and as that empire declined, various peoples ruled the area. Through wars and treaties, the British presence in Asia expanded, and by the early twentieth century British India included all of modern Pakistan. Because of hostilities between British India's Muslims and Hindus, the separate Muslim nation of Pakistan was created when British India gained independence in 1947. With its boundaries drawn around the Muslim population centers, Pakistan was formed from the northeastern and northwestern parts of India, and its eastern region was separated from the west by more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km). East Pakistanis felt that power was unfairly concentrated in the west, and in 1971 a civil war erupted. Aided by India, East Pakistan won the war and became the independent nation of Bangladesh. After the death of President Mohammed Zia in 1988, the people elected Benazir Bhutto, who has revived the People's party of her father, a previous president.
~
PHILIPPINES
@
Nearly all Filipinos are descended from Malay peoples. The majority are Roman Catholic, a reflection of centuries of Spanish rule. A Muslim minority has begun agitating for autonomy. Although nearly ninety native languages and dialects are spoken, Filipino and English are the official languages. The wide gap between rich and poor, inherited from a plantation economy, has concentrated wealth in the hands of the landowners.
#
Philippines is a primarily agricultural nation, relying on rice, sugar, coconuts, and wood. Fishing is an important activity. Considerable reserves of copper, nickel, and chromite make mining important. Manufacturing is developing through government incentives. A dependence on imported goods, along with inadequate but growing power and transport systems, has hampered growth. The archipelago of more than seven thousand islands is marked by mountains, volcanoes, forests, and inland plains. The climate is tropical and includes a typhoon season.
^
The islands are thought to have been settled by Negritos about thirty thousand years ago. Beginning about 3000 B.C., Malay immigrants arrived. By 1565 the area was under Spanish control, and the Roman Catholic church had considerable influence throughout the Spanish period. In the late 1800s, a movement for independence developed but was put down first by the Spanish and then by the United States, which gained the islands in 1898 after defeating Spain in the Spanish-American War. During World War II Japan occupied the Philippines. Independence came in 1946 and was followed by a rebellion by Communists demanding land reform; the rebels were defeated in 1954. Ferdinand Marcos was elected president in 1965 and, in the face of opposition from many quarters, declared martial law in 1972. Marcos lifted martial law in 1981 but was defeated in a 1986 presidential election by Corazon Aquino, wife of assassinated opposition leader Benigno Aquino. Marcos eventually fled the island, and Aquino assumed power. Reforms have been instituted; but coup attempts, leftist insurgency groups, and unresolved social and economic problems still plague the country.
~
QATAR
@
Qatar's population is distinguished by a relatively high proportion of Iranians, Pakistanis, and Indians, who began arriving during the oil boom of the 1950s. Most Qataris are Sunni Muslims and live in or near Doha, the capital. In recent years, the government has encouraged the nomadic Bedouins to take up settled lifestyles. Despite a political trend toward a modern welfare state, Qatar retains many elements of a traditional Islamic society.
#
Oil provides the great majority of Qatar's income, while extensive reserves of natural gas await exploitation. The government has made moves toward economic diversification, investing in agriculture and industry; fertilizer and cement are important new products. Most of Qatar is stony desert, and the climate is hot and arid.
^
No strong central government existed in Qatar before Saudi Muslims gained control in the late eighteenth century. Ottoman Turks occupied the region from 1872 to 1916, when Qatar became a British protectorate. Although oil was discovered in 1940 on the western side of Qatar's peninsula, the outbreak of World War II postponed exploitation for another nine years. Qatar became independent in 1971 after failing to agree on the terms of a union with eight Persian Gulf sheikdoms--today the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain. Oil revenues have been used to improve housing, transportation, and public health. Qatar maintains friendly relations with the West and neighboring Arab states.
~
SAUDI ARABIA
@
Saudi Arabia is inhabited primarily by Arab Muslims descended from Semitic peoples who settled in the region several thousand years ago. The petroleum industry has attracted a sizable minority of Arabs from other nations, Europeans, and non-Arab Muslims from Africa and Asia. The country's official language is Arabic, although English is used among educated Saudis in business and international affairs. Islam dominates Saudi life, and nearly all the people belong to the religion's Sunni branch. Various forms of Christianity and traditional religions are practiced among foreign workers and indigenous minority groups. Most live in urban areas, but some Bedouin tribes preserve their nomadic way of life.
#
The economy of Saudi Arabia has been shaped by its vast deserts and huge petroleum and natural gas reserves. The hot, mostly arid climate has prevented agricultural abundance and stability: the country must import nearly all its food. Oil was discovered in the 1930s, but the country did not begin rapid economic development until the reserves were aggressively exploited following World War II. Saudi Arabia is the world's leading exporter of petroleum, possessing the largest concentration of known oil reserves in the world. The government is seeking to diversify the economy, improve transportation and communication lines, and build agricultural output. Private enterprise and foreign investment are encouraged. Saudi Arabia is divided into the western highlands bordering the Red Sea, a central plateau, northern deserts, the huge Rub al Khali desert in the south, and the eastern lowlands. Only the coastal regions receive appreciable rainfall, and some inland desert areas may go without rain for several years.
^
Even though what is now Saudi Arabia established prosperous trade routes thousands of years ago, its history begins with the founding of Islam by Muhammad in the early 600s A.D. By the end of that century, Mecca and Medina were established as political and religious centers of Islam and remain so today. The territory split into numerous states that warred among themselves for over a thousand years. The Ottoman Turks gained control over the coastal region of Hejaz in the early 1500s, while Britain set up protectorates along the southern and eastern coasts of Arabia during the 1800s. The Saud family dynasty, founded in the 1400s, managed to remain a dominant religious and political force. Members of the dynasty fought to establish the supremacy of Islamic law and unite the various clans into one nation. In 1932 Ibn Saud proclaimed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and established a Saud monarchy that has continued despite dissension within the royal family. Since the 1960s Saudi Arabia has aggressively sought to upgrade local governments, industry, education, the status of women, and the standard of living, while maintaining Islamic values and traditions. Saudi Arabia is a dominant member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Despite disagreements with the West and continuing conflicts with Israel, the country maintains strong diplomatic and economic ties with Western nations.
~
SINGAPORE
@
Singapore is one of the most densely populated nations in the world. Most of the population is Chinese. A significant minority is Malay, and the remainder is European or Indian. Singapore's languages include Chinese, English, Malay, and Tamil. The main religions--Taoism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Hinduism--reflect the cultural diversity of the nation. A mixture of Western and traditional customs and dress characterize Singapore's society. Nearly all the population lives in the city of Singapore on Singapore Island.
#
Singapore is a leading Asian economic power. The city of Singapore is well known as a financial center and major harbor for trade. The nation's factories produce a variety of goods, such as chemicals, electronic equipment, and machinery, and are among the world leaders in petroleum refining. Singapore has few natural resources, however, and little arable land. Most agricultural output is consumed domestically; the country must import much of its raw materials and food. The nation consists of one main island, which is characterized by wet lowlands, and many small offshore islets. Cool sea breezes and a tropical climate make Singapore an attractive spot for tourists.
^
Present-day Singapore has been inhabited since prehistoric times. From the 1100s to the 1800s, Singapore served mainly as a trading center and refuge for pirates. The British East India Company, the major colonial force in India, realized Singapore's strategic importance to British trade and gained possession of the harbor in 1819. Singapore became a crown colony in 1826. As the port prospered, the island's population grew rapidly. Following World War II, the people of Singapore moved from internal self-government to independence in 1965. The government continues to work in partnership with the business community to further Singapore's growth. In foreign policy, the nation remains nonaligned, but as a small country dependent on trade, Singapore is interested in maintaining wide contacts.
~
SRI LANKA
@
The two principal groups in Sri Lanka are the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils. Other minorities include the Moors; Burghers, who are descendants of Dutch, Portuguese, and British colonists; Malays; and Veddah aborigines. Sinhala, Tamil, and English are official languages. Most Sinhalese are Buddhist, most Tamils are Hindu, and the majority of the Moors and Malays are Muslims.
#
Sri Lanka's economy is based on agriculture, which employs nearly half the people in producing tea, rubber, and coconuts. Sri Lanka also hopes to become self-sufficient in rice, thus reducing imports of this staple. Industrial production has increased, and major exports include rubber and textile products. The country also sponsors several internal-development programs. However, continuing high government subsidy and welfare policies threaten economic growth. A low coastal plain, mountainous and forested southern interior, and tropical climate characterize Sri Lanka.
^
The Sinhalese dynasty was founded by a northern Indian prince in about 500 B.C. Later, the Tamils from southern India settled in the north of Sri Lanka. European control began in the 1500s, when the Portuguese and Dutch ruled the island. It became a British possession in 1796 and the independent nation of Ceylon in 1948. In 1972 it changed its name to Sri Lanka. Tensions between the ruling Sinhalese and the minority Tamils have often erupted in violence. Sri Lanka pursues a policy of nonalignment in foreign affairs.
~
SYRIA
@
Most Syrians are Arabic-speaking descendants of Semites, a people who settled the region in ancient times. The majority are Sunni Muslim, and Islam is a powerful cultural force. Only a small percentage are Christian. Non-Arab Syrians include Kurds and Armenians, who speak their own languages and maintain their own customs. French is widely understood, and English is spoken in larger cities. The population is evenly divided between urban and rural settlements.
#
Syria is a developing country with great potential for economic growth. Textile manufacturing is a major industry, and oil, the main natural resource, provides for expanding activity in oil refining. The plains and river valleys are fertile, but rainfall is irregular and irrigation is necessary to sustain agriculture. Most farms are small; cotton and wheat are their major products. The terrain is marked by mountains, the Euphrates River valley, and a semiarid plateau. The climate is hot and dry, with relatively cold winters.
^
Syria was the site of one of the world's most ancient civilizations, and Damascus and other Syrian cities were centers of world trade as early as 2500 B.C. Greater Syria, as the area was called until the end of World War I, originally included much of modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and parts of Turkey. The region was occupied and ruled by several empires, including the Phoenician, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and Greek, before coming under Roman rule in 64 B.C. During subsequent years, Christianity arose in the part of Greater Syria called Palestine. In 636 the region fell to Arab Muslims, who governed until 1260, when Egypt gained control. Syria became part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1516. During World War I, Syria aided Britain in defeating the Turks and Germans in return for independence. After the war, however, the League of Nations divided Greater Syria into four mandates--Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Transjordan--and placed Syria under French control. When Syria gained independence in 1946, many nationals wanted to reunite Greater Syria, but the United Nations made part of Palestine into the Jewish state of Israel. Tensions between Israel and Syria erupted in war in 1967 and 1973 and remain unresolved. In the 1980s, Syria assumed a role in Lebanon's affairs and maintains a military presence there.
~
TAIWAN
@
The majority of Taiwan's inhabitants are descendants of Chinese who migrated from the coast of China in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In 1949, when the Communists came to power in mainland China, many educated Chinese fled to Taiwan. A small group of aborigines, which lives in the mountains in central Taiwan, is most likely of Malay-Polynesian origin. Taiwan's languages are mainly various dialects of Chinese, a Fujian dialect, and a dialect known as "Hakka." Most religious practices combine Buddhist and Taoist beliefs with the Confucian ethical code.
#
Since World War II, Taiwan's economy has changed from agriculture to industry. A past emphasis on light industry, producing mainly consumer goods, has shifted to technology and heavy industry. Although only one-quarter of the island is arable, farmland is intensely cultivated, with some areas producing two and three crops a year. Even though rice, sugar cane, fruits, tea, and fishing are important, much food must be imported. The island's terrain is marked by steep eastern mountains sloping to a fertile western region. The capital of T'aipei administers the Penghu Islands and about twenty offshore islands as well as the island of Taiwan. The climate is maritime subtropical.
^
Chinese migration to Taiwan began as early as A.D. 500. Dutch traders claimed the island in 1624 as a base for trade with China and Japan. It was ruled by China's Manchu dynasty from 1683 until 1895, when China ceded Taiwan to Japan after the first Sino-Japanese war. Following World War II, China regained possession of Taiwan. A civil war in mainland China between Nationalist and Communist forces ended with the victory of the Communists in 1949. Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan, proclaiming T'aipei the provisional capital of Nationalist China. In 1971 the People's Republic of China replaced Taiwan in the United Nations. Even though Nationalist China still maintains it is the legitimate ruler of all China, nearly all nations now recognize the mainland's People's Republic of China.
~
THAILAND
@
Thailand's society is relatively homogeneous. More than 85 percent of its people speak varying dialects of Thai and share a common culture and common religion, Buddhism. Malay-speaking Muslims and Chinese immigrants compose small minorities. Thai society is rural, with most people living in the rice-growing regions. The government has sponsored a successful family- planning program, which has greatly reduced the annual birth rate.
#
With an economy based on agriculture, Thailand exports large quantities of rice each year. Forests produce teak and rattan, and tin is another valuable natural resource. Tourism is the largest source of foreign income. Future industrialization may hinge on deposits of coal and natural gas. The cost of caring for thousands of refugees from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia has been a major drain on the Thai economy. A mountainous and heavily forested nation, Thailand has a tropical climate, dominated by monsoons, high temperatures, and humidity.
^
Thai communities were established as early as 4000 B.C., although a Thai kingdom founded in the thirteenth century A.D. began the history of modern Thailand. In the late 1700s Burmese armies overwhelmed the kingdom. Rama I, founder of the present dynasty, helped to drive the invaders from the country in 1782. He subsequently renamed the nation Siam and established a capital at Bangkok. Siam allowed Europeans to live within its borders during the period of colonial expansion, but the nation never succumbed to foreign rule. As a result, Siam was the only South and Southeast Asian country never colonized by a European power. In 1932 a revolt changed the government from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. Military officers assumed control in 1938, and the nation reverted to its former name, Thailand, in 1939. The country was invaded by Japan in World War II. Following the war, Thailand was ruled by military officers until 1973, when civilians seized control and instigated a period of democracy that ended in 1976, when the military again took control. A new constitution was passed in 1978, followed by elections in 1979.
~
TURKEY
@
Most Turks are descended from an Asian people who migrated from Russia and Mongolia around A.D. 900. About half the Turkish population lives in cities and half in rural areas. Kurds, the largest minority, live in the country's mountainous regions. Arabs and whites compose smaller minorities. The population is mainly Sunni Muslim. The changing status of women and the influence of Islam on daily life are key issues in Turkish society.
#
More than half the workers in this developing country are farmers, but industrialization has increased greatly since 1950. The most productive lands are in the mild coastal regions, although wheat and barley are grown in the desertlike plateau area. The government owns or controls many important industries, transportation services, and utilities, while most small farms and manufacturing companies are privately owned. The climate is Mediterranean along the coast, but temperature extremes are typical in the inland plateau.
^
Hittites began to migrate to the area from Europe or central Asia around 2000 B.C. Successive dominant groups included Phrygians, Greeks, Persians, and Romans. Muslims and Christians battled in the area during the Crusades of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In the 1300s, Ottoman Turks began to build what would become a vast empire for six hundred years. Mustafa Kemal founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923, after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. In 1960 the Turkish government was overthrown by Turkish military forces, who subsequently set up a provisional government, adopted a new constitution, and held free elections. In the sixties and seventies, disputes with Greece over Cyprus, populated by majority Greeks and minority Turks, flared into violence, and radical groups committed terrorist acts against the government. Turkey's generals assumed power in 1980 and restored order to the country. The government returned to civilian rule in 1984 under Prime Minister Turgut Ozal, who was reelected in 1987.
~
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
@
The varied population of the Soviet Union is composed of more than one hundred distinct groups. Nearly three-quarters of the people are Eastern Slavs, and more than 70 percent of this group are Russians. The remaining Slavs are Ukrainians, Byelorussians, and Uzbek. The rest of the population belongs to Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Caucasian, other Indo-European groups, and a mixture of peoples, including Inuit. Each group speaks its own language, although Russian is the most widely used. Religious practice is discouraged by the state, and churches have no legal status--although Russian Orthodox, Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Judaism, and other religions are actively practiced.
#
The Soviet Union is one of the world's leading industrial powers. Mining, steel production, and other heavy industries predominate. The economy is controlled by the state, and economic policies are administered through a series of five-year plans, which emphasize industrial and technological growth. The Soviet economy suffers from low productivity, energy shortages, and a lack of skilled labor, problems the government hopes can be eased by greater use of technology and science. The Soviet Union trades primarily with members of the eastern-bloc Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, although trade with the West has risen sharply in the past few years. Geographically, the Soviet Union is the largest nation in the world. Its terrain is widely varied and richly endowed with minerals. Though the country contains some of the world's most fertile land, long winters and hot, dry summers keep many crop yields low.
^
Inhabited as early as the Stone Age, what is now the Soviet Union was much later invaded successively by Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Slavs, and others. By A.D. 989 Byzantine cultural influence had become predominant. Various groups and regions were slowly incorporated into a single state. In 1547 Ivan IV was crowned czar of all Russia, beginning a tradition of czarist rule that lasted until the 1917 Russian Revolution, when the Bolsheviks came to power and named Vladimir Ilyich Lenin as head of the first Soviet government. The Bolsheviks established a Communist state and weathered a bitter civil war. Joseph Stalin succeeded Lenin as head of state in 1924 and initiated a series of political purges that lasted through the 1930s. The Soviet Union became embroiled in World War II, siding with the Allies, losing over twenty million people, and suffering widespread destruction of its cities and countryside. It emerged from the war with extended influence, however, having annexed part of Finland and many Eastern European nations. Following Stalin's death in 1953, the Soviet Union experienced a liberalization of policies under Nikita Khrushchev. In 1964 Leonid Brezhnev worked to consolidate and strengthen the power of the Secretariat and Politburo of the Communist party. Mikhail S. Gorbachev took office in 1985 and introduced a new era of leadership, reform, and government restructure.
~
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
@
The United Arab Emirates is a predominantly urban federation of seven independent states, each with its own ruling emir. The indigenous population is mostly Arab and Muslim, but only a small percentage of residents are United Arab Emirates citizens. Other groups include foreigners attracted by jobs in industry, especially Asians and Western Europeans. Arabic is the official language, but Farsi and English are widely spoken. The nation's population enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, as well as free medical and educational facilities.
#
Most of the United Arab Emirates is desert, which explains agriculture's small economic role. However, the federation is rich in oil, and major deposits-- primarily in Abu Dhabi--account for nearly all of the Emirian national budget. The United Arab Emirates has tried to diversify its economy through production of natural gas, ammonia, and building materials. To attract tourists, airport expansion and hotel development are also on the rise.
^
Centuries ago, Arab rulers gained control of the region, formerly called the Trucial Coast, and Islam spread to the area in the A.D. 600s. In 1820 Arabian emirs signed the first of a number of treaties with the United Kingdom. Mutual self-interest led to an 1892 treaty that granted Britain exclusive rights to Trucial territory and government activity in return for military protection. Britain formally withdrew from Trucial affairs in 1971, and six of the Trucial emirates entered into a loose federation called the United Arab Emirates, which included Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Ash Shariqah, Ajman, Umm al Qaywayn, and Al Fujayrah. The seventh, Ra's al Khaymah, joined in early 1972. Because each emirate has a great deal of control over its internal affairs and economic development, the growth of federal powers has been slow. Defense spending is on the increase, however, and growing Arab nationalism may lead to a more centralized government.
~
VIETNAM
@
Despite centuries of foreign invasion and domination, the people of Vietnam remain remarkably homogeneous; ethnic Vietnamese compose the majority of the population. Chinese influence is seen in the major religions of Buddhism and Confucianism. The official language is Vietnamese, but a history of foreign intervention is reflected in wide use of French, English, Chinese, and Russian.
#
The Vietnamese economy has struggled to overcome the effects of war and the difficulties inherent in unifying the once-divided country. Agriculture, centered in the fertile southern plains, continues to employ nearly 70 percent of the people. Vietnam intends to expand its war-damaged mining industry, which has been slowed by lack of skilled personnel and a poor transportation network. Vietnam's economic picture is not likely to improve until the country can resolve its political and social problems. The landscape of Vietnam ranges from mountains to plains, and the climate is tropical.
^
The first Vietnamese lived in what is now northern Vietnam. After centuries of Chinese rule, Vietnam finally became independent in the 1400s, but civil strife continued for nearly two centuries. French missionary activity began in the early seventeenth century, and by 1883 all of present-day Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos were under French rule. When Germany occupied France during World War II, control of French Indochina passed to the Japanese until their defeat in 1945. The French presence continued until 1954, when Vietnamese Communists led by Ho Chi Minh gained control of North Vietnam. United States aid to South Vietnam began in the 1961 and ended, after years of conflict, with a cease-fire in 1973. Communist victory and unification of the country as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was achieved in 1975. Vietnamese military policy resulted in fighting with China and the occupation of Cambodia until 1989. Political reforms have aimed at improving their impoverished economic status.
~
YEMEN
@
Most inhabitants of the Republic of Yemen, or Yemen, are Arab with small minorities of Indians, Pakistanis, and East Africans. Yemenis are Arabic speaking, but Semitic variations are heard in the eastern part of the country, and English is widely understood. The predominant religion is Islam, and the population is divided into Shiite and Sunni Muslims. The Shiites populate the north, central, and east, with the Sunni community in the south and southwest. Small numbers of Christians, Hindus, and Jews also exist. Most Yemenis are subsistence farmers.
#
Yemen has a terrain suited for agriculture, the backbone of the nation's economy. However, ineffective agricultural techniques combined with regional instability often hinder production. Industrial activity is growing slowly, with production based on domestic resources, but exploitation of oil, iron ore, and salt deposits is financially prohibitive at this time. The landscape of Yemen varies from arid lowlands to the fertile, well-cultivated highlands that dominate the center of the area north and west of Aden. The climate is temperate in the highlands and hot and dry in the lowlands.
^
In May, 1990, an agreement was ratified to unify North and South Yemen. From earliest times the area north and west of Aden, previously called North Yemen, has been occupied by trade empires, and it was part of the Kingdom of Sheba in the 900s B.C. Christian and Jewish societies thrived in the pre-Islamic period, and the region's flourishing economy made it a focal point in the development of Islam. The Ottoman Empire ruled this northwestern area from the sixteenth century until 1918, when the Turkish military withdrew and gave control to the highland Zaidis. In 1962 the Yemeni army deposed the Imam Badr and established the Yemen Arab Republic. Civil unrest continued until a reconciliation of royalists and republicans in 1968, but a 1970 constitution was suspended in 1974 and military leaders assumed control. The area north and east of Aden, previously called South Yemen, has a similar history. Between 1200 B.C. and A.D. 525, this area was at the center of the Minaean, Sabaean, and Himyarite cultures. Christian Ethiopian and Persian populations also increased before the introduction of Islam in the seventh century. British control of the coastal area began in 1839, and Aden became an important center of trade. Regional instability caused Britain to expand eastward and establish the protectorate of Aden in the 1930s. By the mid-1960s, Aden had become the focus of Arab nationalists, and in 1967 Britain granted independence to the People's Republic of South Yemen. After a coup by a Marxist faction in 1970, this area's name was changed to the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. During the 1970s, border clashes erupted between the two Yemens. Conciliatory efforts on the part of the governments of North and South Yemen resulted in the recent union of the two areas, now called the Republic of Yemen.
~
ALGERIA
@
Indigenous Berbers and invading Arabs shaped modern Algeria's culture, and today most of the population is Muslim and of Arab-Berber, Arab, or Berber descent. European cultural influences, evidence of over a century of French control, exist in urban areas. Since independence in 1962, free medical care has been instituted and the educational system has been greatly improved.
#
A member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Algeria produces oil and natural gas. Agriculture is divided between state and privately-owned farms. The government continues to emphasize gas production and exportation, while it maintains a socialistic economy and promotes development of private business. Algeria's terrain is varied. The Tell, Arabic for hill, is a narrow Mediterranean coastal region that contains the country's most fertile land and highest population. South of this lie high plateaus and the Atlas Mountains, which give way to the Sahara Desert. The climate is temperate along the coast and dry and cool in the plateau region.
^
In the eighth and eleventh centuries, invading Arabs brought their language and religion to the native Berbers. The Berbers and Arabs together became known as Moors, and conflicts between Moors, Turks, and Spaniards erupted periodically over several centuries. France began conquering Algeria in 1830, and by 1902 the entire country was under French control. The revolution against French rule began in 1954, but it was not until 1962 that the country was declared independent. Since a bloodless coup in 1965, the political situation has been relatively stable. A 1989 referendum approved a new constitution allowing multiparty elections. Algeria remains aligned with other Arab countries against Israel.
~
ANGOLA
@
Angola today is made up mostly of various Bantu peoples--mainly Ovimbundu, Mbundu, Kongo, and others. Despite influences from a half-century of Portuguese rule, Angolan traditions remain strong, especially in rural areas. Each group has its own language, and although Portuguese is the official language, it is spoken by a minority. Many Angolans, retaining traditional indigenous beliefs, worship ancestral spirits.
#
A 1975 civil war, the resultant departure of skilled European labor, and continuing guerrilla activity have taken their toll on Angola's economy. The country has been working toward recovery, however, encouraging development of private industries and foreign trade. Although not a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Angola is a large oil producer. Cabinda, an enclave separated from the rest of the country by Zaire and the Zaire River, is the main site of oil production. Diamond mining remains an important activity, as does agriculture. Much of the land is forested, however, and is therefore not suited for commercial farming. The flat coastal area gives way to inland plateaus and uplands. The climate varies from tropical to subtropical.
^
Bantu groups settled in the area prior to the first century A.D. In 1483 a Portuguese explorer became the first European to arrive in Angola, and slave trade soon became a major activity. Portuguese control expanded and continued almost uninterrupted for several centuries. In the 1960s, ignored demands for popular rule led to two wars for independence. Three nationalist groups emerged, each with its own ideology and supporters. In 1974 a coup in Portugal resulted in independence for all Portuguese territories in Africa, and Angola became independent in 1975. A civil war ensued, with the three liberation groups fighting for power. By 1976, with the assistance of Cuban military personnel, the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (PMLA) had established control. Angola, Cuba, and South Africa signed an accord in 1988 providing for Cuban troop withdrawals by July 1991. Rival parties of the PMLA struggle for a share in the government.
~
ASCENSION
@
Despite Ascension's sparse vegetation, subsistence farming is practiced by many people on this small island in the southern Atlantic. A dependency of the British colony of St. Helena, Ascension is also home to a number of immigrants from that island, which lies about 700 miles (1,126 kilometers) to the southeast.
#
Agriculture activity includes raising livestock and growing vegetables and fruit. Ascension is the site of a British communications relay station and a United States satellite tracking station; thus the communications industry is a major employer. In addition, the island is know for its wildlife; the sea turtles that come ashore to lay their eggs and the sooty terns that use Ascension as their breeding grounds. The climate of this volcanic island is mild.
^
A Portuguese explorer arrived on the island in 1501. He was followed by the British in 1701, and in 1815 Britain took possession of Ascension. In 1922, administration of Ascension was transferred to St. Helena, and along with Tristan da Cunha, Ascension remains a dependency of that colony. Mainly of strategic importance, Ascension served as a United States refueling station during World War II and played a role in the British battle with Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1982.
~
BENIN
@
The mostly black population of Benin is composed of numerous peoples. The main groups are the Fon, the Adja, the Yoruba, and the Bariba. The nation's linguistic diversity reflects its ethnic variety; French is the official language, a result of former French rule. Most Beninese are farmers, although urban migration is increasing. Indigenous beliefs predominate, but there are also Christians, especially in the south, and Muslims in the north.
#
Political instability has been both the cause and effect of Benin's economic problems. The agricultural economy is largely undeveloped, and palm trees and their by-products provide the chief source of income and activity for both farming and industry. Some economic relief may be found in the exploitation of offshore oil. The predominately flat terrain features coastal lagoons and dense forests, with mountains in the northwest. Heat and humidity characterize the coast, with less humidity and varied temperatures in the north.
^
In the 1500s, Dahomey, a Fon kingdom, became the power center of the Benin area. European slave traders came to the coast in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, establishing posts and bartering with Dahomey royalty for slaves. As the slave trade prospered, the area became known as the Slave Coast. In the 1890s France defeated Dahomey's army and subsequently made the area a territory of French West Africa. In 1960, the country gained independence, followed by political turmoil, various coups, and a military overthrow which installed the current socialist government in 1972. In 1975 the nation changed its name from Dahomey to Benin. A nonaligned country, Benin's foreign policy emphasizes friendly relations with neighboring Nigeria.
~
BOTSWANA
@
The population of this sparsely-populated country is composed mostly of Tswana, Bantu peoples of various groups. Following settlement patterns laid down centuries ago, Tswana predominate in the more fertile eastern region, and the minority Bushmen are concentrated in the Kalahari Desert. There is also a white minority population. English is the official language, reflecting years of British rule, but the majority speak Tswana. Half of the people follow traditional beliefs, while the rest are Christian.
#
Agriculture and livestock raising are the primary activities, although they are limited by the southwestern Kalahari Desert. The most productive farmland lies in the east and north, where rainfall is higher and grazing lands are plentiful. Since the early seventies, when increased exploitation of natural resources began, the economy has developed rapidly. Diamond mining is the main focus of this growth, together with development of copper, nickel, and coal. The climate is mostly subtropical.
^
In Botswana's early history, Bushmen, the original inhabitants, retreated into the Kalahari region when the Tswana invaded and established their settlements in the more fertile east. Intertribal wars in the early nineteenth century were followed by conflicts with the Boers, settlers of Dutch or Huguenot descent. These conflicts led the Tswana to seek British assistance, and the area of present-day Botswana became part of the British protectorate of Bechuanaland. When the Union of South Africa was created in 1910, those living in Bechuanaland (later Botswana), Basutoland (later Lesotho), and Swaziland requested and were granted exclusion from the Union. British rule continued until 1966, when the protectorate of Bechuanaland became the Republic of Botswana. The country maintains a policy of nonalignment in foreign affairs and seeks to expand relations with other nations. In addition, Botswana would like to reduce its economic dependence on South Africa, whose apartheid policy it opposes.
~
BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY
@
Up until the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Chagos Islands, which make up the British Indian Ocean Territory, were inhabited by the Ilois, descendants of slaves who had worked the islands' coconut plantations. Between 1967 and 1973, about 3,000 Ilois were removed and resettled in Mauritius and Seychelles to make way for British and United States military development. Therefore, no permanent population currently resides in the British Indian Ocean Territory. There are about 4,500 temporary residents, including about 1,600 military personnel working for a joint British-United States military operation.
#
Because of its proximity to the Persian Gulf, the British Indian Ocean Territory is of strategic importance, and the island of Diego Garcia is the site of a United States naval facility. Diego Garcia, the largest island of the Chagos archipelago, has a lagoon with natural anchorages and a V shape well suited for runway construction. Other major island groups in the archipelago include Peros Banhos and Salomon. In total, the British Indian Ocean Territory comprises about 2,300 islands. The overall terrain is flat and low, and the climate is tropical, with heat and humidity moderated by trade winds.
^
European rivalry for the spice trade and routes to India and the Far East centered in the coastal lands and islands of the Indian Ocean in the 1700s. After gaining possession of Mauritius in 1715, in the 1750s France claimed the islands of Seychelles, which included the Chagos. An economy based on the production of copra, or coconut meat, soon developed, and slaves were brought to work the plantations. With the end of slavery in the nineteenth century, the slaves became contract employees, and the work on the plantations continued. These former slaves and their descendants became known as the Ilois. Following the Napoleonic Wars, in the 1814 Treaty of Paris, France ceded to Britain the colony of Mauritius and its dependencies, which included Seychelles and the Chagos Islands. These islands were administered from Mauritius until 1903, when Seychelles became a separate colony. The Chagos Islands, however, remained a dependency of Mauritius. In 1955, Britain separated the Chagos Islands, along with the islands of Aldabra, Desroches, and Farquhar, from Mauritius to create the British Indian Ocean Territory. Mauritius received monetary compensation and the promise that the islands would be returned when they ceased to be of military value. The following year, the United States and Britain agreed to develop the islands as a joint military project, and a communications facility began operating in 1973. To make way for this and future projects, the copra plantations were dissolved, and the Ilois relocated to Mauritius and Seychelles. When Seychelles gained independence in 1976, Britain ceded Aldabra, Desroches, and Farquhar to the new country. Since 1973, the British Indian Ocean Territory's communications facility has expanded to become a major United States naval operation in the Indian Ocean. Opposition to military development in the region has been nearly unanimous among the islands and coastal nations of the Indian Ocean. The current United States lease on the island of Diego Garcia extends to the year 2025. The now-independent country of Mauritius also claims rights to the island of Diego Garcia.
~
BURKINA FASO
@
The agricultural Mossi, descendants of warrior migrants, are Burkina Faso's majority population. Other groups include the Fulani, Lobi, Malinke, Bobo, Sehufo, and Gurunsi. Ethnic languages vary, although French is the official language.
#
Burkina Faso's agricultural economy suffers from frequent droughts and an underdeveloped transportation system. Most people engage in subsistence farming or livestock raising, and industrialization is minimal. Resources are limited but include gold and manganese. The country remains dependent on foreign aid, much of it from France. The land is marked by northern desert, central savanna, and southern forests, while the climate is generally tropical.
^
The Mossi arrived from central or eastern Africa during the eleventh century and established their kingdom in the area of Burkina Faso. The French came in the late nineteenth century. In 1919 France united various provinces and created the colony of Upper Volta. The colony was divided among other French colonies in 1932, reinstituted in 1937 as an administrative unit called the Upper Coast, and returned to territorial status as Upper Volta in 1947. It gained independence in 1960. Economic problems and accusations of government corruption led to leadership changes and military rule, including numerous coups. In 1984, the country changed its name from Upper Volta to Burkina Faso.
~
BURUNDI
@
One of Africa's most densely populated nations, Burundi has a populace composed mainly of three Bantu groups. The Hutu are a majority, while the Tutsi, descendants of invaders from Ethiopia, wield most of the power. The Twa are Pygmy hunters, probably descended from the area's inhabitants prior to the influx of the Hutu. Most Burundians are subsistence farmers and Roman Catholic, evidence of foreign influence and rule.
#
An undeveloped country, Burundi relies mainly on agriculture, although undependable rainfall, depleted soil, and erosion occasionally combine for famine. Coffee is a major export. Exploitation of nickel deposits, industrial development through foreign investment, and expansion of tourism offer potential for growth. Although the country is situated near the equator, its high altitude and hilly terrain result in a pleasant climate.
^
In the fourteenth century, invading pastoral Tutsi warriors conquered the Hutu and Pygmy Twa and established themselves as the region's power base. The areas of modern Burundi and Ruanda were absorbed into German East Africa in the 1890s. Following Belgian occupation during World War I, in 1919 the League of Nations placed present-day Burundi and Ruanda under Belgian rule as part of Ruanda-Urundi. After World War II Ruanda-Urundi was made a United Nations trust territory under Belgian administration. In 1962 Urundi became Burundi, an independent monarchy, and political turmoil soon followed. A Tutsi-dominated government replaced the monarchy in 1966. A 1976 coup installed a government that sought a redistribution of power, but was overthrown by the Army in 1987. The Constitution was suspended and thousands of Burundians have since died in ethnic clashes between the Tutsi and the Hutu.
~
CAMEROON
@
Immigration and foreign rule shaped Cameroon's diverse population, composed of some two hundred groups speaking twenty-four major African languages. Both English and French are official languages, resulting from the merging of former French-ruled eastern and British-ruled western territories. Population is concentrated in the French-speaking eastern region. The majority of people practice indigenous beliefs that often influence Islamic and Christian practices as well.
#
Recent economic plans have focused on agriculture, industry, and the development of oil deposits. Agriculture is still the country's economic base, but oil is a major export. A varied terrain features southern coastal plains and rain forests, central plateaus, mountainous western forests, and northern savanna and marshes. Although this has hindered transportation development and thus slowed economic growth, improvements are being made. Climate varies from a hot, humid coastal region to fluctuating temperatures and less humidity northward.
^
The Sao people reached the Cameroon area in the tenth century. The Portuguese arrived in the 1500s, and the following three centuries saw an influx of European and African peoples and an active slave trade along the coast. In 1884 Germany set up a protectorate that included modern Cameroon by 1914. During World War I British and French troops occupied the area, and in 1919, following the war, the League of Nations divided Cameroon into eastern French and western British mandates. The Cameroons became trust territories in 1946, and French Cameroon became an independent republic in 1960. In 1961 the northern region of British Cameroon elected to join Nigeria, and the southern area chose to unite with the eastern Republic of Cameroon. This resulted in a two-state Federal Republic of Cameroon. A 1972 referendum combined the states into the United Republic of Cameroon, and in 1984, the official name became the Republic of Cameroon. The government has a foreign policy of nonalignment.
~
CAPE VERDE
@
The Portuguese-African heritage of Cape Verde's population is a result of Portuguese rule and the forced transmigration of Africans for slavery. Although Portuguese is the official language, the majority speaks Crioulo, a creole dialect. Most people are Roman Catholic, but indigenous practices exist, sometimes in combination with Catholicism. The mainly poor population is largely undernourished and plagued by unemployment. The country consists of five islets and ten main islands, and all but one are inhabited.
#
The volcanic, mountainous islands have few natural resources and low rainfall; thus the country's economy remains underdeveloped. Fishing and agriculture are important for both subsistence and commercial purposes. Much of the land is too dry for farming, and drought is a frequent problem. Cape Verde's location on air and sea routes and its tropical climate offer potential for expansion into services and tourism. However, Cape Verde will most likely continue to rely on foreign aid for some time.
^
The islands that make up Cape Verde were uninhabited when the Portuguese arrived around 1460. Settlement began in 1462, and by the sixteenth century Cape Verde had become a shipping center for the African slave trade. Until 1879 Portugal ruled Cape Verde and present-day Guinea- Bissau as a single colony. A movement for the independence of Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau began in the 1950s, and a 1974 coup in Portugal ultimately resulted in autonomy for both countries, with Cape Verde proclaiming independence in 1975. Plans to unify Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau were abandoned following a 1980 coup in Guinea-Bissau. Cape Verde follows a foreign policy of nonalignment and takes a special interest in African affairs.
~
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
@
Lying near Africa's geographical center, the Central African Republic was the stopping point for many precolonial nomadic groups. The resultant multiethnic populace was further diversified by migrations during the slave-trade era. Of the country's many languages, Sango is most widely used. Overall, the population is rural and suffers from poverty and a low literacy rate.
#
Fertile land, extensive forests, and mineral deposits provide adequate bases for agriculture, forestry, and mining. Economic development remains minimal, however, impeded by poor transportation routes, a landlocked location, lack of skilled labor, and political instability. Subsistence farming continues as the major activity, and agriculture is the chief contributor to the economy. The country consists of a plateau region with southern rain forests and a northeastern semidesert. The climate is temperate, and ample rainfall sometimes results in impassable roads.
^
Little is known of the area's early history except that it was the site of many migrations. European slave trade in the nineteenth century led to the 1894 creation of a French territory called the Ubangi-Chari. This in turn combined with the areas of the present-day Congo, Chad, and Gabon in 1910 to form French Equatorial Africa. The Central African Republic gained independence in 1960. A 1966 military coup installed military chief Jean-Bedel Bokassa, who in 1976 assumed the title of emperor, changed the republic to a monarchy, and renamed the nation the Central African Empire. A 1979 coup ended the monarchy and reinstated the name Central African Republic. The country enacted a new constitution in 1986.
~
CHAD
@
Centuries ago Islamic Arabs mixed with indigenous black Africans and established Chad's diverse population. This variety has led to a rich but often troubled culture. Descendants of Arab invaders mainly inhabit the north, where Islam predominates and nomadic farming is the major activity. In the south--traditionally the economic and political center--the black Sara predominate, operating small farms and practicing indigenous or Christian beliefs. Chad's many languages also reflect its ethnic variety.
#
Natural features and instability arising from ethnic and regional conflict have combined to prevent Chad from prospering. Agriculture and fishing are economic mainstays and are often conducted at subsistence levels. The Sahara extends into Chad's northern region, and the southern grasslands with their heavy rains compose the primary agricultural area. The relative prosperity of the region, in conjunction with its predominantly Sara population, has fueled much of the political conflict. Future growth is greatly dependent on political equilibrium. Climate varies from the hot, dry northern desert to the semiarid central region and rainier south.
^
African and Arab societies began prospering in the Lake Chad region around the eighth century A.D. Subsequent centuries saw the landlocked area become an ethnic crossroads for Muslim nomads and African groups. European traders arrived in the late 1800s, and by 1900 France had gained control. When created in 1910, French Equatorial Africa's boundaries included modern Chad, Gabon, the Congo, and the Central African Republic. Following Chad's independence in 1960, the southern Sara gained dominance over the government. A northern rebel group has emerged and government-rebel conflict has continued. Libyan troops entered Chad in 1980, and conflict continued until they were finally expelled in 1987. Libya and Chad formally ended their war in October 1988.
~
COMOROS
@
The ethnic groups of Comoros' Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali islands are mainly of Arab-African descent, practice the Muslim religion, and speak a Swahili dialect. Roman Catholic descendants of Malagasy immigrants compose the majority on French-ruled Mayotte Island. Arab culture, however, predominates throughout the island group. Poverty, disease, a shortage of medical care, and low literacy continue to plague the nation.
#
The economic mainstay of Comoros is agriculture, and most Comorans practice subsistence farming and fishing. Plantations employ workers to produce the main cash crops. Of volcanic origin, the islands have soils of varying quality, and some are unsuited for farming. Terrain varies from the mountains of Njazidja to the hills and valleys of Mayotte. The climate is cool and dry, with a winter rainy season.
^
The Comoro Islands saw invasions by coastal African, Persian Gulf, Indonesian, and Malagasy peoples. Portuguese explorers landed in the 1500s, around the same time Arab Shirazis, most likely from Persia, introduced Islam. The French took Mayotte in 1843 and had established colonial rule over the four main islands by 1912. Comoros declared unilateral independence in 1975. Mayotte, however, voted to remain under French administration.
~
CONGO
@
The Congo's four main groups, the Kongo, Sangha, Mbochi, and Teke, create an ethnically and linguistically diverse populace. The official language, French, reflects former colonial rule. Population is concentrated in the south, away from the dense forests, heavy rainfall, and hot climate of the north. Educational programs have improved, although rural inhabitants remain relatively isolated.
#
Brazzaville was the commercial center of the former colony called French Equatorial Africa. The Congo now benefits from the early groundwork laid for service and transport industries. Subsistence farming occupies most Congolese, however, and takes most of the cultivated land. Low productivity and a growing populace create a need for foreign aid, much of it from France. Offshore petroleum is the most valuable mineral resource and a major economic contributor. The land is marked by coastal plains, a south-central valley, a central plateau, and the Congo River basin in the north. The climate is tropical.
^
Several tribal kingdoms existed in the area during its early history. The Portuguese arrived on the coast in the 1400s, and slave trade flourished until it was banned in the 1800s. A Teke king then signed a treaty placing the area, known as Middle Congo, under French protection. In 1910 Middle Congo, the present-day Central African Republic, Gabon, and Chad were joined to form French Equatorial Africa. The Republic of the Congo became independent in 1960. Subsequent years saw unrest, including coups, a presidential assassination, and accusations of corruption and human-rights violations. In 1979 a newly-elected president granted amnesty to political prisoners, and the country has remained relatively stable. The nation maintains a policy of nonalignment with both Communist and Western countries.
~
DJIBOUTI
@
Characterized by strong cultural unity, Islam, and ethnic ties to Somalia, Somali Issas compose Djibouti's majority. Afars, who make up another main group, are also mostly Muslim and are linked ethnically with Ethiopia. Rivalry between the two groups has marked the nation's history. Because of unproductive land, much of the population is concentrated in the capital city of Djibouti.
#
Traditional nomadic herding continues as a way of life for many Djiboutians, despite heat, aridity, and limited grazing area. Several assets promote Djibouti as a port and trade center: a strategic position on the Gulf of Aden, an improved harbor, and a railway linking the city of Djibouti with Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. Marked by mountains that divide a coastal plain from a plateau region, the terrain is mostly desert. The climate is extremely hot and dry.
^
In the ninth century Arab missionaries introduced Islam to the population, and by the 1800s a pattern of conflict between the Issas and Afars had developed. The French purchased the port of Obcock from Afar sultans in 1862, and their territorial control expanded until the region became French Somaliland. The goal of the pro- independence Issas was defeated in elections in 1958 and 1967 when the majority voted for continued French control. The country became the French Territory of Afars and Issas in 1967, and as the Issa population grew, so did demands for independence. A 1977 referendum resulted in the independent Republic of Djibouti.
~
EGYPT
@
Egypt's population is relatively homogenous, and Egyptians compose the largest group. Descended from ancient Nile Valley inhabitants, Egyptians have intermixed somewhat with Mediterranean and Asiatic peoples in the north and with black Africans in the south. Minorities include Bedouins, Arabic-speaking desert nomads; Nubians, black descendants of migrants from the Sudan; and Copts, a Christian group. Islam, the major religion, is also a cultural force, and many Christians as well as Muslims follow Islamic lifestyles. A desert terrain confines about 99 percent of the population to less than 4 percent of the land, in the fertile Nile River valley and along the Suez Canal.
#
Egypt's economy has suffered from wars, shifting alliances, and limited natural resources. Government-sponsored expansion and reform in the 1950s concentrated on manufacturing, and most industry was nationalized during the 1960s. Agriculture, centered in the Nile Valley, remains an economic mainstay, and cotton, a principal crop, is both exported and processed. Petroleum, found mainly in the Gulf of Suez, will most likely continue its economic role, and tourism will remain a contributor. Much of Egypt is desert, with hills and mountains in the east and along the Nile River, while the climate is warm and dry.
^
Egypt's recorded history began when King Menes united the region in about 3100 B.C., beginning a series of Egyptian dynasties. Art and architecture flourished during the Age of the Pyramids, from 2700 to 2200 B.C. In time native dynasties gave way to foreign conquerors, including Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. The Coptic Christian church emerged between the fourth and sixth centuries A.D., but in the 600s Arabs conquered the area and established Islam as the main religion. Ruling parties changed frequently, and in 1517 the Ottoman Turks added Egypt to their empire. Upon completion of the strategically important Suez Canal in 1869, foreign interest in Egypt increased. In 1875 Egypt sold its share of the canal to Britain, and a rebellion against foreign intervention ended with British occupation in 1882. Turkey sided with Germany in World War I, and the United Kingdom made Egypt a British protectorate in 1914. The country became an independent monarchy in 1922, but the British presence remained. In 1945 Egypt and six other nations formed the Arab League. The founding of Israel in 1948 initiated an era of Arab-Israeli hostilities, including periodic warfare in which Egypt often had a major role. Dissatisfaction over dealings with Israel and continued British occupation of the Suez Canal led to the overthrow of the king, and Egypt became a republic in 1953. Following a power struggle, Gamal Abdel Nasser was elected president in 1956, and the British agreed to remove their troops. Upon the death of Nasser in 1970, Vice President Anwar Sadat came to power. Negotiations between Egyptian president Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin began in 1977, and in 1979 the leaders signed a peace treaty ending conflicts between Egypt and Israel. As a result, Egypt was suspended from the Arab League. In 1981 President Sadat was assassinated and was succeeded by Hosni Mubarek, who is faced with pressure from Muslim fundamentalists and discontent over the economy.
~
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
@
Several ethnic groups inhabit Equatorial Guinea's five islands, as well as the mainland region of Rio Muni. Although the majority Fang, a Bantu people, are concentrated in Rio Muni, they also inhabit Bioko, the largest island. Found mainly on Bioko Island are the minority Bubi, also a Bantu people. Coastal groups known as playeros, or ""those who live on the beach,'' live on both the mainland and the small islands. The Fernandino, of mixed African heritage, are concentrated on Bioko. Equatorial Guinea is the only black African state with Spanish as its official language.
#
Equatorial Guinea's economy is based on agriculture and forestry; cocoa, coffee, and wood are the main products. Cocoa production is centered on fertile Bioko Island, and coffee in Rio Muni. The mainland's rain forests also provide for forestry. Mineral exploration has revealed petroleum and natural gas in the waters north of Bioko, and petroleum, iron ore, and radioactive materials exist in Rio Muni. Bioko is of volcanic origin, and Rio Muni consists of a coastal plain and interior hills. The climate is tropical, with high temperatures and humidity.
^
Pygmies most likely inhabited the Rio Muni area prior to the thirteenth century, when mainland Bubi came to Bioko. From the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, Bantu migrations brought first the coastal tribes and then the Fang. Portugal claimed Bioko and part of the mainland in the 1400s, then ceded them to Spain in 1778. From 1827 to 1843, British antislavery activities were based on Bioko, which became the home of many former slaves, the ancestors of the Fernandino population. In 1959 the area became the Spanish Territory of the Gulf of Guinea, and the name was changed to Equatorial Guinea in 1963. Independence was achieved in 1968, and a subsequent dictatorship resulted in human-rights violations, the flight of many residents, and a general deterioration of the economy. A 1979 military coup ended the regime, but ethnic power rivalries continue. The official foreign policy is nonalignment.
~
ETHIOPIA
@
Ethiopia is ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse, but the Oromo, Amhara, and Tigre predominate. The Oromo include agricultural Muslims, Christians, and nomadic herders with traditional religions. Mainly Christian and also agricultural, the Amhara have dominated the country politically. The official language is Amharic; Arabic and indigenous languages are also spoken. Ethiopia's boundaries encompass over forty ethnic groups.
#
In addition to problems caused by political instability, drought has plagued Ethiopia's agricultural economy. Existing problems of soil erosion and deforestation resulted in disaster in 1982 when planting-season rains failed to fall in much of the country. The consequences of drought are especially severe in the north and west. Subsistence farming remains a major activity, and much arable land is uncultivated. Mines produce gold, copper, and platinum, and there is potential for expansion. A central plateau is split diagonally by the Great Rift Valley, with lowlands on the west and plains in the southeast. The climate is temperate on the plateau and hot in the lowlands.
^
Ethiopia's history is one of the oldest in the world. Its ethnic patterns were established by indigenous Cushites and Semite settlers, who probably arrived from Arabia about three thousand years ago. Christianity was introduced in the early fourth century. During the 1800s modern Ethiopia began to develop under Emperor Menelik II. Ras Tafari Makonnen became emperor in 1930, taking the name Haile Selassie. Italians invaded in the 1930s and occupied the country until 1941, when Selassie returned to the throne. Discontent with the feudal society increased until Selassie was ousted by the military in 1974. Reform programs and the change in leadership have done little to ease political tensions, which have sometimes erupted in governmental and civilian violence. Government troops continue their battle with separatists in Eritrea, a former Italian colony and autonomous province incorporated into Ethiopia in 1962. In the 1980s, widespread famine and drought aggravated political problems. Internal strife between the Marxist government and secessionist factions hampered worldwide relief efforts.
~
GABON
@
Of Gabon's more than forty ethnic groups, the Fang are a majority and inhabit the area north of the Ogooue River. Other major groups include the Eshira, Bapounou, and Teke. The French, who colonized the area, compose a larger group today than during colonial times. Each of the groups has its own distinct language as well as culture, but French remains the official language.
#
Gabon is located astride the equator, and its many resources include petroleum, manganese, uranium, and dense rain forests. The most important activities are oil production, forestry, and mining. The economy depends greatly on foreign investment and imported labor, however, and many native Gabonese continue as subsistence farmers. While the labor shortage hinders economic development, the country has a high per capita income. The terrain is marked by a coastal plain, inland forested hills, and savanna in the east and south. The climate is hot and humid.
^
First inhabited by Pygmies, Gabon was the site of migrations by numerous Bantu peoples during its early history. The thick rain forests isolated the migrant groups from one another and thus preserved their individual cultures. The Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century, followed by the Dutch, British, and French in the 1700s. The slave and ivory trades flourished, and the Fang, drawn by the prosperity, migrated to the coast in the 1800s. A group of freed slaves founded Libreville, which later became the capital. By 1885 France had gained control of the area, and in 1910 it was united with present-day Chad, the Congo, and the Central African Republic as French Equatorial Africa. Gabon became independent in 1960, and in 1964 French assistance thwarted a military takeover. During the 1970s, Gabon developed major economic ties with the United States and with China.
~
GAMBIA
@
Gambia's population includes the Mandingo, or Malinke; Fulani; Wolof; Jola; and Serahuli. Most people are Muslim, and language differs from group to group, although the official language is English. Gambians are mainly rural farmers, and literacy is low, with educational opportunities focused in the Banjul area. The population's size varies with the arrival and departure of seasonal Senegalese farm laborers.
#
Gambia's economy relies on peanut production, and crop diversification is a current goal. Subsistence crops include rice, and the government hopes increased rice production will decrease dependence on imports and foreign aid. Fishing and tourism have expanded in the past years. In addition, the Gambia River, which provides a route to the African interior, offers potential for an increased role in trade. Dense mangrove swamps border the river, giving way to flat ground that floods in the rainy season. Behind this lie sand hills and plateaus. Low-lying Gambia, with its subtropical climate, is virtually an enclave within Senegal.
^
From the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries the flourishing Mali Empire included the Gambia area. The Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century, established slave trading posts, and sold trade rights to Britain in 1588. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries France and Britain competed for control of the river trade. By the late 1800s, the Banjul area had become a British colony and the interior a British protectorate. Gambia achieved independence as a monarchy in 1965, and the country became a republic in 1970. In 1982 Gambia and Senegal formed the Confederation of Senegambia, which combined the countries' security and armed forces and strengthened economic ties. The official foreign policy is nonalignment.
~
GHANA
@
Nearly all Ghanaians are black Africans. The Akan, the majority group, are further divided into the Fanti, who live mainly along the coast, and the Ashanti, who inhabit the forests north of the coast. The Ewe and Ga live in the south and southeast. Other groups include the Guan, living on the Volta River plains, and the Moshi-Dagomba in the north. Ghana's more than fifty languages and dialects reflect this ethnic diversity, and English, the official language, is spoken by a minority. Islam and traditional African religions predominate, but a Christian minority also exists. Most people live in rural areas, and the literacy rate is low.
#
Agriculture is the economic base, but Ghana's natural resources are diverse. Production of cocoa, the most important export, is concentrated in the Ashanti region, a belt of tropical rain forest extending north from the coastal plain. Resources include forests and mineral deposits, and exploitation of bauxite, gold, diamonds, and manganese ore is currently underway. Ghana's coastal lowlands give way to scrub and plains, the Ashanti rain forest, and northern savanna. The climate is tropical.
^
The ancestors of today's Ghanaians probably migrated from the northern areas of Mauritania and Mali in the thirteenth century. The Portuguese reached the shore around 1470 and called the area the Gold Coast. Many countries competed for the region, but in 1874 the Gold Coast was made a British colony. By 1901 Britain had extended its control to the inland Ashanti area, which became a colony, and the northern territories, which became a protectorate. The three regions were merged with British Togoland, a onetime German colony under British administration since 1922. In 1957 the four regions united as independent Ghana. Instability resulted, arising from a history of disunity and economic problems. The parliamentary state became a republic in 1960, and civilian rule has alternated with military governments. Ghana follows a foreign policy of nonalignment, and although Ghanaians' loyalties are based on community rather than national allegiance, they are in general agreement on foreign affairs.
~
GUINEA
@
Guinea's population is composed of several ethnic groups, with three--the Fulani, Malinke, and Susu--forming nearly half the total. Most Guineans are rural farmers, living in hamlets, and the only true urban center is Conakry. Mortality as well as emigration rates are high. Eight official languages besides French, the language of the colonial power, are taught in the schools.
#
Rich soil and a varied terrain suited for diverse crop production have made agriculture an important economic activity. Guinea also has vast mineral reserves, including one of the world's largest bauxite deposits. Centralized economic planning and state enterprise have characterized the republic, but Guinea now encourages private and foreign investments. The terrain is mostly flat along the coast and mountainous in the interior. The climate is tropical on the coast, hot and dry in the north and northeast, and cooler with less humidity in the highlands.
^
As part of the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires that flourished in West Africa between the fourth and fifteenth centuries, Guinea was a trading center for gold and slaves. The Portuguese arrived on the coast in the 1400s, and European competition for Guinean trade soon began. In the 1890s France declared the area a colony and named it French Guinea. A movement for autonomy began after World War II with a series of reforms by the French and the growth of a labor movement headed by Sekou Toure, later the nation's first president. The first of the French colonies in West Africa to attain independence, in 1958 Guinea was also the only colony to reject membership in the French Community. In recent years the military set up a provisional government and banned political parties.
~
GUINEA-BISSAU
@
Guinea-Bissau's largest ethnic group, the Balanta, mainly inhabit the coastal area. Most practice traditional beliefs, although some are Christian. Predominately Muslim peoples, the Fulani and Malinke are concentrated in the northwest. The Manjaca inhabit the northern and central coastal regions. Although the official language is Portuguese, many speak Crioulo, a creole dialect also spoken in Cape Verde.
#
Guinea-Bissau's economy is underdeveloped and dependent upon agriculture. Peanuts, cotton, corn, and sorghum are grown in the north, and palm-oil production is concentrated along the coast. Timber is produced primarily in the south. Fishing, especially shrimp production, has increased since 1976. Bauxite deposits have been located, and exploration for additional resources continues. Mineral exploitation is hindered by a lack of transportation routes, however. A swamp-covered coastal plain rises to an eastern savanna. The climate is tropical. The country includes the Bijagos Archipelago, which lies just off the coast.
^
The area of Guinea-Bissau was inhabited by diverse peoples prior to the arrival of the Portuguese in 1446. Ruled as a single colony with Cape Verde, the region soon developed into a base for the Portuguese slave trade. In 1879 it was separated from Cape Verde as Portuguese Guinea, and its status changed to overseas province in 1951. A movement for the independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde developed in the 1950s, and a coup in Portugal in 1974 resulted in independence the same year. Attempts to unite Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde were unsuccessful, and a 1980 coup installed an anti-unification government.
~
IVORY COAST
@
Ivory Coast is composed almost entirely of black Africans from more than sixty ethnic groups. French is the nation's official language, a result of former French rule, but many indigenous languages are spoken as well. Traditional religions predominate, though a significant number of Ivorians are Muslim or Christian. Most Ivorians live in huts in small villages, but increased numbers have moved to the cities to find work. Overcrowding is a major problem in the cities.
#
Once solely dependent upon the export of cocoa and coffee, Ivory Coast now produces and exports a variety of agricultural goods. Forest land, when cleared, provides rich soil for agriculture--still the country's main activity. Petroleum, textile, and apparel industries also contribute to the strong economy. Ivory Coast pursues a policy of economic liberalism in which foreign investment is encouraged. As a result, foreigners hold high-level positions in most Ivory Coast industries. The hot, humid coastal region gives way to inland tropical forest. Beyond the forest lies savanna, and to the northwest are highlands.
^
Ivory Coast once consisted of many African kingdoms. French sailors gave the region its present name when they began trading for ivory and other goods in 1483. Missionaries arrived in 1637, but European settlement was hindered by the rugged coastline and intertribal conflicts. Ivory Coast became a French colony in 1893. Movements toward autonomy began after World War II, and in 1960 Ivory Coast declared itself an independent republic. The nation has enjoyed political stability since independence and has maintained close economic ties with France. Ivory Coast has one political party, which controls the government. Foreign policy stresses favorable relations with the West.
~
KENYA
@
Nearly all Kenyans are black Africans belonging to one of more than forty different groups, each with its own language and culture. Some groups are nomadic, like the Masai. Arab and European minorities--found mostly along the coast--reflect Kenya's history of foreign rule. Most Kenyans live in the southwestern highlands, raising crops or livestock. Over half of the citizens practice a form of Christianity, while the rest pursue indigenous beliefs or Islam. Swahili, a blend of Bantu and Arabic, is the official language; it serves as a communication link among Kenya's many ethnic groups. English is also spoken. The national slogan of harambee, or ""pull together,'' illustrates the need for cooperation among Kenya's diverse groups. The government promotes such national unity.
#
Scenic terrain, tropical beaches, and abundant wildlife have given Kenya a thriving tourist industry, and land has been set aside for national parks and game preserves. Agriculture is the primary activity, even though the northern three-fifths of the country is semidesert. The most productive soils are found in the southwestern highlands, and coffee is the main export crop. Much of the land is also used for raising livestock, another leading economic contributor. Oil from other nations is refined in Kenya, and food processing and cement production are also significant activities. Kenya's climate varies from arid in the north to temperate in the highlands and tropical along the coast.
^
Remains of early humans dating back more than two million years have been found in Kenya. Settlers from other parts of Africa arrived about 1000 B.C. A thousand years later Arab traders reached the coast, and controlled the area by the eighth century A.D. The Portuguese ruled the coast between 1498 and the late 1600s. Kenya came under British control in 1895 and was known as the East African Protectorate. Opposition to British rule began to mount in the 1940s as Kenyans demanded a voice in government. The Mau Mau rebellion of the fifties, an armed revolt, was an outgrowth of this discontent. Kenya gained independence from Britain in 1963 and became a republic in 1964. Its first president was Jomo Kenyatta, a Kikuyu who had been an active leader in the previous revolt. Recent administrations have pursued a policy of Africanization, under which land and other holdings have been transferred from European to African hands.
~
LESOTHO
@
The Sotho, a black African group, comprise almost all of Lesotho's population. Most Sotho live in the lowlands and raise livestock and crops. The official languages are Sesotho, a Bantu tongue, and English, and the traditional religion is based on ancestor worship, though many Sotho are Christian. A system of tribal chieftaincy is followed locally.
#
Surrounded by South Africa and having few resources, Lesotho is almost entirely dependent on South Africa for economic survival. Much of the male population must seek employment there, usually spending several months a year in South African mines or industries. Agriculture remains at the subsistence level, and soil erosion threatens production. Livestock raising represents a significant part of Lesotho's economy. Wool and mohair are among the chief exports. Diamond mining, one of the few industries, employs a small portion of the population. Most of the terrain is mountainous; the fairly high elevations give Lesotho a temperate climate.
^
Refugees from tribal wars in southern Africa arrived in what is now Lesotho between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries A.D. Chief Moshoeshoe united the Sotho tribes in 1818 and led them in war against the Boers, settlers of Dutch or Huguenot descent. At Moshoeshoe's request, Basutoland came under British protection in 1868. It resisted attempts at absorption by the Union of South Africa and became the independent kingdom of Lesotho in 1966. The government of Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan, threatened by an apparent defeat at the polls, suspended the constitution in 1970 and set up a provisional assembly in 1973. Opposition to the Jonathan administration has erupted in periodic violence. Lesotho, although unforgiving of South Africa's racial policies, is forced by its geographic and economic situation to cooperate with its powerful neighbor. After claims by South Africa that Lesotho was harboring rebel groups, Lesotho agreed to expel rebels opposing South African policies.
~
LIBERIA
@
Most Liberians belong to about twenty indigenous black groups. Few are descended from the freed American slaves who founded modern Liberia, but this group--known as Americo-Liberians--has traditionally been politically dominant. The official language is English, and more than twenty other tongues are also spoken. Most people are farmers and practice traditional religious beliefs, although Islam and Christianity also have adherents. Liberia is the only black African state to escape colonialism.
#
Liberia owes its healthy economy largely to an open-door policy, which has made its extensive resources attractive to foreign nations. Two of the most important activities, iron-ore mining and rubber production, were developed by Western firms. Large timber reserves have not yet been fully exploited. Liberia also profits from the vast merchant fleet registered under its flag. The land is characterized by a coastal plain, plateaus, and low mountains, while the hot, humid climate is marked by distinct wet and dry seasons.
^
Early settlers are thought to have migrated from the north and east between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries A.D. Trade between Europeans and coastal groups developed after the Portuguese visited the area in the late 1400s. The American Colonization Society, a private United States organization devoted to resetting freed slaves, purchased land in Liberia, and in 1822 the first settlers landed at the site of Monrovia. The settlers declared their independence in 1847, setting up a government based on the United States model and creating Africa's first independent republic. For the next century, the Liberian government endured attempts at colonization by France and Britain, as well as internal tribal opposition. The string of Americo- Liberian rulers was broken in 1980, when a small group of soldiers of African descent toppled the government and imposed martial law. Civilian rule and some degree of harmony were restored in a 1985 election.
~
LIBYA
@
Libya, originally settled by Berbers, is largely a mix of Arab and Berber today. Almost all Libyans live along the coast, with some nomadic groups in desert areas. Large migrations from rural areas to the cities have accompanied Libya's oil-based prosperity. Islam is the majority religion, and nearly all Libyans speak Arabic. Traditional social orders still exist, despite centuries of foreign rule.
#
The discovery of oil in 1959 propelled Libya from the ranks of the world's poorest nations to one of its leading oil producers. It has used these revenues to develop industry and agriculture to diversify its economy. Most of Libya is covered by the Sahara Desert, and the limited agriculture has been further hurt by Libyan farmers migrating to the cities. The climate is desert except for the coast, which has moderate temperatures.
^
For much of its history, Libya was dominated by Mediterranean empires: Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek, and Roman. In the seventh century A.D. the area was taken by Muslim Arabs, whose language and religion transformed Libyan culture. Although the Ottoman Turks conquered the region in the sixteenth century, local rulers remained virtually autonomous. Italy invaded Libya in 1911, and the country became an Italian colony in 1912. Following World War II, British and French forces occupied the area until a United Nations resolution made Libya an independent nation in 1951. A monarchy ruled until 1969, when a military coup established a republic headed by Colonel Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi. Under his leadership, Libya has backed Arab unity and the Palestinian cause, opposed foreign influences, and created a welfare system. Libya's support of terrorist activities led to a controversial United States air strike against the country in 1986, and several nations have instituted economic sanctions against Libya.
~
MADAGASCAR
@
Most of the population is of mixed African and Indonesian descent. Those who live on the coast, the cotiers, are of predominantly African origin, while those on the inland plateau have Asian roots. There is a long-standing rivalry between the cotiers and the inland groups, most of whom belong to the Merina people. The official languages are French and Malagasy. Sizable Christian communities exist, but most Malagasy practice indigenous beliefs that involve ancestor worship.
#
Madagascar is chiefly an agricultural nation, with the majority of the work force engaged in farming or herding. Overpopulation and outmoded cultivation have recently cut into yields of rice, an important crop, and other products. Varied mineral resources, including oil, point to possible expansion. The climate is tropical on the coastal plains and moderate in the inland highlands.
^
Madagascar's first settlers are thought to be Indonesians, who brought African wives and slaves around two thousand years ago. Arab traders established themselves on the coast in the seventh century. The Portuguese first sighted the island in the 1500s, and other Europeans followed. The Merina kingdom, based in the central plateau, gained control over most of the island in the 1790s. French influence grew throughout the nineteenth century, and in 1896 France made the island a colony after subduing the Merina. Resentment of French rule continued, culminating in an armed revolt in 1947. Full independence came in 1960. After twelve years of rule by the same president, a coup placed the military in power. A new constitution was adopted in 1975 that established the Democratic Republic of Madagascar.
~
MALAWI
@
Almost all Malawians are black Africans descended from Bantu peoples. The Chewa constitute the majority in the central area, while the Nyanja are dominant in the south and the Tumbuka in the north. Chichewa and English are official languages. The majority of the population is rural, and traditional village customs are prevalent. For the most part, the society is matriarchal. Many Malawians combine Christian or Muslim beliefs with traditional religious practices.
#
A landlocked nation with limited resources and a largely unskilled work force, Malawi relies almost entirely on agriculture. A recent series of poor harvests, combined with a tripling of the population between 1950 and 1989, has contributed to the decline in agricultural output. Among the main exports are tea and tobacco. Many Malawians work part of the year as miners in South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Malawi, situated along the Great Rift Valley, has a varied terrain with highlands, plateaus, and lakes. The climate is subtropical, and rainfall varies greatly from north to south.
^
Archaeological findings indicate that Malawi has been inhabited for at least fifty thousand years. Bantu-speaking peoples, ancestors of the Malawians, immigrated from the north around A.D. 1400 and soon formed centralized kingdoms. In the 1830s, other Bantu groups, involved in the slave trade, invaded the region. The arrival of Scottish missionary David Livingstone in 1859 began a period of British influence; in 1891 the territory became the British protectorate of Nyasaland. Beginning in 1953, Nyasaland was part of the larger Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Malawi attained independence in 1964 and became a republic in 1966, with nationalist leader Dr. H. Kamuzu Banda as its first president. The Malawi Congress party appointed Banda as president-for-life in 1970.
~
MALI
@
The majority of Malians belong to one of several black groups, although there is a small non-black nomadic population. Most Malians are farmers who live in small villages. The official language is French, but most people communicate in Bambara, a market language. The population is concentrated in the basins of the Niger and Senegal rivers in the south. Heirs of three ancient empires, Malians have produced a distinct culture.
#
One of the world's poorest nations, Mali depends primarily on agriculture but is limited by a climate that produces drought and a terrain that is almost half desert. Mineral reserves have not been exploited because of poor transportation and power facilities. Food processing and textiles account for most industry. A landlocked country, Mali faces a growing national debt due to its dependence on foreign goods. The climate is hot and dry, with alternating dry and wet seasons.
^
Parts of present-day Mali once belonged to the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires. These wealthy empires, which ruled from about A.D. 300 to 1600, traded with the Mediterranean world and were centers of Islamic learning. Fierce native resistance delayed colonization by the French until 1904, when French Sudan, as the area was called, was made part of French West Africa. In 1959 it joined Senegal to form the Federation of Mali. Senegal soon withdrew from the union, and French Sudan declared itself the Republic of Mali in 1960. A military coup overthrew the republic, a socialist state, in 1968. In 1979, the country reestablished civilian rule.
~
MAURITANIA
@
Most Mauritanians are Moors, descendants of Arabs and Berbers, or of mixed Arab, Berber, and black descent. The Moors, who speak Arabic, are mostly nomadic herdsmen. The remainder of the population is composed of black Africans, who speak several languages and farm in the Senegal River valley. Virtually all Mauritanians are Muslim. Proportionally, the nomadic population has declined recently because of long periods of drought, although overall population is increasing.
#
Mauritania's economy is based on agriculture, with many farmers producing only subsistence-level outputs. Crop production, confined chiefly to the Senegal River valley, has recently fallen because of drought and outmoded cultivation methods. Mining of high-grade iron-ore deposits is the main industrial activity, although fishing and fish processing are also important. Inadequate transportation and communication systems and a war with Western Sahara have crippled the economy. In addition to the river valley, land regions include a northern desert and southeastern grasslands. Mauritania has a hot, dry climate.
^
Berbers began settling in parts of the area around A.D. 300 and established a network of caravan trading routes. From this time until the late 1500s, sections of the south were dominated by the Ghana, the Mali, and finally the Songhai empires. Contact with Europeans grew between the 1600s and 1800s, and in 1920 France made Mauritania a colony. Mauritania attained independence in 1960, although Morocco claimed the area and did not recognize the state until 1970. During the late seventies, Mauritania became embroiled in a war with Morocco and the Polisario Front, a Western Saharan nationalist group, for control of Western Sahara. Mauritania withdrew its claim to the area in 1979. A coup in 1978 ended seventeen years of presidential rule and established a military government. Local elections were held in the late 1980s in a first step towards democratization.
~
MAURITIUS
@
Mauritius's diverse ethnicity is largely the product of its past as a sugar-producing colony. Creoles are descendants of African slaves and European plantation owners, while the Indian community traces its roots to laborers who replaced the Africans after slavery was abolished. There are also people of Chinese and French descent. Franco-Mauritians now compose most of the nation's elite. English is the official tongue, but French, a French creole, and many other languages are also spoken. Religious activity is similarly varied and includes followers of Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, and Tamil.
#
Sugar remains fundamental to the economy: almost all arable land is covered by sugar cane, and sugar and its by-products make up the majority of exports. Attempts have been made at diversification, with tea and tobacco recently introduced. Inflation, unemployment, overpopulation, and low sugar prices cloud the economic outlook. The nation includes the island of Mauritius, Rodrigues Island, Agalega Islands, and Cargados Carajos Shoals. The climate is tropical.
^
Although visited by Arab, Malay, and Portuguese sailors between the tenth and sixteenth centuries A.D., Mauritius was uninhabited until 1598, when the Dutch claimed it. They abandoned the island in 1710, and five years later the French made it their colony. During the 1700s, the French used Mauritius, which they called Ile de France, as a naval base and established plantations worked by imported slaves. The British ousted the French in 1810 and outlawed slavery soon afterward. In the nineteenth century indentured workers from India replaced the slaves. Mauritius began its history as an independent state in 1968 with a system of parliamentary democracy. In 1982, the Militant Socialist Movement succeeded the Labor Party, which had been in power for fourteen years.
~
MAYOTTE
@
Of Malagasy descent, Mahorais are the main ethnic group on French-ruled Mayotte, and most of the population is Sunni Muslim. French, the official language, is used for commercial affairs, but most Mahorais speak Mahorian, an Arab dialect of Swahili. Both the French and Malagasy cultures have influenced the people of Mayotte.
#
Mayotte's cash crops include ylang-ylang, vanilla, coffee, copra, cinnamon, and cloves, and the lobster and shrimp industries are expanding. The territorial collectively comprises the volcanic island of Mayotte; the small island of Pamanzi; and several other islands. The climate is tropical.
^
Part of the Comoro archipelago, Mayotte shares much of its early history with the nation of Comoros. The islands served as a link between Madagascar and the African mainland, and Mayotte became a crossroads for invading Africans, Arabs, Indonesians, and Malagasy. In 1843 France took the island of Mayotte, then eventually expanded its control to the other Comoro Islands. When Comoros became independent in 1975, Mayotte remained under French rule. In 1976 Mayotte's people again voted to retain their ties with France and not join the independent country of Comoros.
~
MOROCCO
@
Moroccans, virtually homogeneous in race and culture, are mostly a mix of Arab and Berber stocks and speak Arabic. A few Berber dialects are spoken in rural mountain areas, and French and Spanish, the colonial tongues, are common in business and government. The majority of people are Sunni Muslim. The population is concentrated west of the Atlas Mountains, which border the Sahara Desert. Rural people are migrating to cities, where the standard of living is higher.
#
Although agriculture employs much of the work force and is an important activity, the nation depends on mining for most of its income. Morocco is a leading exporter of phosphates, but has other mineral reserves as well. Fishing and tourism are growing sources of revenue. Recently, severe drought, rising dependency on imported oil, and a costly war in Western Sahara have slowed productivity, while investments by Arab countries have bolstered the economy. Morocco, with its varied terrain of desert, forests, and mountains, has an equally varied climate that is semitropical along the coast, and desert beyond the Atlas Mountains.
^
In ancient times, Morocco was a province of Carthage and Rome. Vandals and Byzantine Greeks, the subsequent rulers, were followed in the A.D. 700s by Arabs, who brought Islam. Morocco's strategic position awakened the interest of colonial powers in the 1800s, and by 1912 the area was divided into French and Spanish protectorates. A nationalist movement began in the 1920s, occasionally bringing violence, but not until 1956 did Morocco become independent from France. The last of Spain's holdings in Morocco were returned in 1969. War broke out in 1976, when Morocco claimed the northern part of Western Sahara and was challenged by the Saharan nationalist Polisario Front. Although Mauritania, which had been involved in the war and had been fighting for southern Western Sahara, surrendered its claim in 1979, Morocco has continued to battle the Polisario Front.
~
MOZAMBIQUE
@
Black Africans belonging to about ten groups compose the vast majority of the population. Most black Mozambicans live in rural areas, while small European and Asian minorities live primarily in urban centers. Traditional African religions are followed by a majority, while others practice Islam and Christianity. Although Portuguese is the official language, most blacks speak Bantu tongues.
#
Mozambique's underdeveloped economy is largely the product of its colonial past, during which its human and natural resources were neglected. Recent political developments in southern Africa have created more economic woes, as lucrative trade agreements with racially divided neighbors have ceased. While the mainstays of the economy are agriculture and transport services, fishing and mining are also being developed. The Marxist government has allowed some private enterprise, and foreign aid is important. The climate is tropical or subtropical along the coastal plain that covers nearly half of the country, with cooler conditions in the western high plateaus and mountains.
^
Bantu-speaking peoples settled in present-day Mozambique around the first century A.D. Subsequent immigrants included Arab traders in the 800s and the Portuguese in the late 1400s. European economic interest in the area was hindered by lucrative trading with other colonies, and Mozambique wasn't recognized as a Portuguese colony until 1885. Policies instituted by the Portuguese benefited European settlers and Portugal while overlooking the welfare of Mozambique and its native inhabitants. In the early 1960s, the country made clear its opposition to foreign rule, with the formation of the Mozambique Liberation Front, a Marxist nationalist group that initiated an armed campaign against the Portuguese. In 1975 Mozambique became an independent state dedicated to eliminating white-minority rule in the area. Nevertheless, Mozambique has economic ties to South Africa, and in 1984 the two nations pledged to deny refuge to each other's foes. Continued guerrilla fighting and food shortages have created a crisis situation in Mozambique.
~
NAMIBIA
@
The largest ethnic group is black African, composed of many indigenous peoples. South Africans, Britons, and Germans constitute the white minority. Black Namibians speak various native dialects, while the majority of whites speak Afrikaans. Blacks still follow traditional customs and religions, but a considerable number have converted to Christianity.
#
Namibia's economy is based on the mining of diamonds, copper, lead, and other minerals. Agriculture makes a marginal contribution, but livestock raising is important. Manufacturing remains undeveloped because of an unskilled work force, and Namibia imports most of its finished goods from South Africa, its partner in a customs union. A variety of factors, including continuing drought and political instability, have held back economic growth. Namibia consists of a high plateau that encompasses the Namib Desert and part of the Kalahari Desert. The climate is subtropical.
^
Bushmen were probably the area's first inhabitants, followed by other African peoples. European exploration of the coast began in the A.D. 1500s, but the coastal desert prevented foreign penetration. In 1884 Germany annexed all of the territory except for the coastal enclave of Walvis Bay, which had been claimed by Britain in 1878. After South African troops ousted the Germans from the area during World War I, the League of Nations mandated Namibia, then known as South West Africa, to South Africa. Following World War II, the United Nations requested that the territory become a trusteeship. South Africa refused to cooperate. In 1966 the United Nations revoked South Africa's mandate, yet South Africa kept control of Namibia. Beginning in the sixties, the South West Africa People's Organization, a Namibian nationalist group with Communist support, made guerrilla raids on South African forces from bases in Zambia and, later, from Angola. In 1989, after years of continued pressure, an assembly was elected to draft a constitution. Independence was achieved in March 1990.
~
NIGER
@
Nearly all Nigerois are black Africans belonging to culturally diverse groups. The Hausa and the Djerma, farmers who live mostly in the south, constitute the two largest groups. The remaining Nigerois are nomadic herders who inhabit the northern desert regions. Although the official language is French, most inhabitants speak indigenous tongues. Islam is the most commonly observed religion, but some Nigerois follow indigenous and Christian beliefs.
#
Niger's economy is chiefly agricultural, although arable land is scarce and drought common. The raising of livestock, grain, beans, and peanuts accounts for most farming activity. Uranium mining, a growing industry, has become less productive recently due to a slump in the world uranium market. Mountains and the Sahara Desert cover most of northern Niger, while the south is savanna. The climate is hot and dry.
^
Because of its central location in northern Africa, Niger was a crossroads for many peoples during its early history and was dominated by several African empires before European explorers arrived in the 1800s. The area was placed within the French sphere of influence in 1885, but not until 1922 did France make Niger a colony of French West Africa. Gradual moves toward autonomy were made during the forties and fifties, and Niger became fully independent in 1960. Unrest caused in part by a prolonged drought led to a coup in 1974 and the establishment of a military government. Civilians now have some part in the political system. Niger maintains close ties to France.
~
NIGERIA
@
Nigeria, Africa's most populous nation, contains more than two hundred distinct black African groups. The largest groups are the Hausa and the Fulani, who dominate the north; the Yoruba, found primarily in the southwest; and the Ibo, who live in the southeast and have historically been active in government and trade. Most Hausa and Fulani are Muslim, and a sizable Christian community is found mainly in the south. Nigerians commonly combine traditional beliefs with Islam or Christianity. Indigenous tongues are more widely spoken than English, the official language. Competition among Nigeria's many ethnic groups has threatened national unity.
#
Nigeria's economy is based on mining and agriculture. Petroleum is very important to the Nigerian economy, but a number of factors--including unskilled labor, poor power facilities, and the worldwide dip in oil prices--have silenced the oil boom of the 1970s and slowed development in other areas. In 1983 and 1985 the government expelled millions of illegal aliens in an effort to revive the economy. The terrain is diverse, encompassing tropical forest, savanna, and semi-desert. The climate is predominantly tropical.
^
From around 500 B.C. to about A.D. 200 the region was home to the sophisticated Nok civilization. Later cultures that dominated parts of the area included the Hausa, Fulani, and Yoruba. The Portuguese arrived in the 1400s, but the British gained control over the following centuries, uniting the region in 1914 as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Nigerian calls for self-rule culminated in independence in 1960. Internal tensions began to wrack the new nation, and in 1966 two military coups took place. After subsequent massacres of Ibo, that group declared eastern Nigeria the autonomous state of Biafra. A three-year civil war followed, ending in 1970 with Biafra's surrender. Government development and the oil boom speeded economic recovery. Subsequent years have seen coups and elections install short-lived regimes, and political instability continues.
~
REUNION
@
Reunion has a racially mixed population, mainly descended from French settlers, African slaves, and Asian laborers. French is the official language, but most inhabitants speak a creole dialect. The mainly Roman Catholic population is densely concentrated in the lowland areas along the coast. Social stratification is rigid.
#
Reunion's traditional sugar crop continues as its economic mainstay, although commercial fishing and shellfish are also important. Unemployment is a problem, and the island remains dependent upon French aid. Volcanoes, including one active and several extinct, mark the mountainous terrain. The tropical climate is subject to occasional cyclones and trade winds, which bring high rainfall to the south and southeast.
^
Although known to the Arabs and the Portuguese, Reunion was uninhabited when French settlement began in the 1660s. First called Ile Bourbon, the island originally served as a stopover on the French shipping route to India. The French soon developed coffee and sugar plantations, bringing slaves from Africa to work them. British-French rivalry for control of the area led to brief British rule during the early 1800s. The name was changed to Reunion in 1848, and after the abolition of slavery, indentured laborers were brought from Indochina, India, and eastern Africa. Reunion was a French colony until 1946, when it became an overseas department.
~
RWANDA
@
Most Rwandans are Hutu, mainly farmers of Bantu stock. Minorities include the Tutsi, a pastoral people that dominated politically until a Hutu rebellion in 1959, and the Twa, Pygmies descended from the original population. Both French and Kinyarwanda are official languages, but most speak Kinyarwanda, a Bantu tongue. Roman Catholicism is the major religion, and minority groups practice indigenous beliefs as well as Protestantism and Islam. A high population density and a high birthrate characterize Rwanda.
#
Agriculture is the major activity, although plagued by the erosion and overpopulation of arable land. Many Rwandans practice subsistence farming, while coffee and tea are major export crops. The production and export of minerals, partly fueled by foreign investment, is also important. Tourism is small but growing; Rwanda is one of the last refuges of the mountain gorilla. The country's landlocked position and underdeveloped transportation system hinder economic growth. The terrain consists mainly of grassy uplands and hills, with volcanic mountains in the west and northwest, while the climate is mild.
^
The Twa, the region's original inhabitants, were followed by the Hutu. The Tutsi most likely arrived about the fourteenth century, subjugating the weaker Hutu and becoming the region's dominant force. The areas of present-day Rwanda and Burundi became part of German East Africa in the 1890s. In 1919, following World War I, the region was mandated to Belgium as Ruanda-Urundi, and following World War II, Ruanda-Urundi was made a United Nations trust territory under Belgian administration. In 1959 a Hutu revolt against Tutsi domination resulted in the death of many Tutsi and the flight of many more. After gaining independence in 1962, the former territory split into the countries of Rwanda and Burundi. The military overthrew the nation's first president in 1973.
~
SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE
@
Descendants of African slaves and people of Portuguese-African heritage compose most of Sao Tome and Principe's population. Colonial rule by Portugal is evidenced by the predominance of the Portuguese language and Roman Catholicism. The majority of the population lives on Sao Tome.
#
Cocoa dominates Sao Tome and Principe's economy. Copra and palm-oil production are also important, and fishing plays an economic role as well. Through the development of vegetable crops, the government hopes to diversify agricultural output, as much food must now be imported. Part of an extinct volcanic mountain range, Sao Tome and Principe have a mostly mountainous terrain. The climate is tropical.
^
When Portuguese explorers arrived in the 1400s, Sao Tome and Principe were uninhabited. Early settlers included Portuguese convicts and exiles. Cultivation of the land and importation of slaves led to a thriving sugar economy by the mid-1500s. In the 1800s, following slave revolts and the decline of sugar production, coffee and cocoa became the islands' mainstays, and soon large Portuguese plantations called rocas were established. Slavery was abolished by Portugal in 1876, but an international controversy arose in the early 1900s when it was found that Angolan contract workers were being treated as virtual slaves. Decades of unrest led to the 1953 Batepa Massacre, in which Portuguese rulers killed several hundred rioting African workers. A movement for independence began in the late 1950s, and following a 1974 change of government in Portugal, Sao Tome and Principe became independent in 1975. The country has established ties with other former Portuguese colonies in northern Africa since gaining independence.
~
SENEGAL
@
Most Senegalese are black Africans from many ethnic groups, each with its own customs and language. The country has many immigrants from other African nations. While French is the official language, Wolof is widely spoken. Islam is the major religion, followed by Animist and Christian beliefs. Senegal is mainly a rural nation of subsistence farmers.
#
The mainstays of the economy are petroleum, agriculture, fishing, and mining. Tourism is a rapidly growing new industry. Petroleum, chemicals, phosphates, and fish products rank as Senegal's primary exports. Agricultural output is often hurt by irregular weather patterns, and the country must import nearly all its energy. Senegal has one of the finest transportation systems in Africa. Small plateaus, low massifs, marshy swamps, and a sandy coast highlight the terrain, which is mainly flat. The climate is marked by dry and rainy seasons, with differing precipitation patterns in the south and the more arid north.
^
The area that is now Senegal has been inhabited by black Africans since prehistoric times. When Europeans first established trade ties with the Senegalese in the mid-1400s, the country had been divided into several independent kingdoms. By the early 1800s, France had gained control of the region and in 1895 made Senegal part of French West Africa. In 1959 Senegal joined with French Sudan, or present-day Mali, to form the Federation of Mali, which became independent in 1960. However, Senegal withdrew from the federation later in the year to found the independent Republic of Senegal. The new parliamentary government was plagued by coup attempts and an economy crippled by the severe droughts of the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1982 Senegal formed a union with Gambia, called the Confederation of Senegambia, to strengthen economic and military ties between the two countries. Senegal maintains close ties to France and follows a pro-Western foreign policy.
~
SEYCHELLES
@
The majority of Seychellois are of mixed African, European, and Asian ancestry. The islands' culture combines French and African elements, and although the official languages of French and English are widely spoken, most also speak a creole dialect of French. Many of the more than one hundred islands are coral atolls, unable to support human life. The population is concentrated on Mahe, the largest island, while the remainder live mainly on Praslin and La Digue islands.
#
The basis of the economy is tourism, with foreign visitors attracted by the tropical climate, white-sand beaches, and exotic flora and wildlife found on the granite islands. Mountainous granite islands, which contain fertile soils for growing cinnamon and coconuts, and flat coral islands comprise Seychelles.
^
The Portuguese reached the uninhabited islands in the early 1500s. For more than two hundred years, the islands served as little more than pirates' havens. France claimed them in 1756; by the 1770s white planters and African slaves had begun to settle Mahe. After a French-English war, France ceded the islands to Britain in 1814. Seychelles achieved independence in 1976.
~
SIERRA LEONE
@
The population of Sierra Leone is divided into nearly twenty main ethnic groups. The two major groups are the Temne in the north and west and the Mende in the south. Descendants of freed American slaves, who settled in Freetown on the coast, make up a sizable Creole minority. English is the official language, but most of the people speak local African tongues. The Creoles speak Krio, a dialect of English. Most people practice Islam or various local religions, and a small number are Christian.
#
Sierra Leone is one of the world's largest producers of industrial and commercial diamonds. The nation also mines bauxite and rutile. Poor soil, a fluctuating tropical climate, and traditional farming methods keep crop yields low. Rice, coffee, and cocoa are important crops. To improve agricultural production, the government is clearing some of the coastal mangrove swamplands. The interior of Sierra Leone is marked by a broad coastal plain in the north and by mountains and plateaus that rise along the country's northern and eastern borders. During the wet season Sierra Leone receives heavy rainfall in the Freetown area and significantly less in the north.
^
When the Portuguese reached the region in 1460, they found the area inhabited by the Temne. The British followed the Portuguese in the 1500s. Europeans took slaves from the area for the New World until Britain abolished the slave trade. In 1787 Englishman Granville Sharp settled nearly four hundred freed black American slaves in what is now Freetown. Britain declared the peninsula a colony in 1808 and a protectorate in 1896. In 1961, Sierra Leone became an independent nation with a constitution and parliamentary form of government. A military takeover in 1967 was short lived, and the constitution was rewritten in 1971 to make the country a republic. Though officially nonaligned, Sierra Leone maintains close ties to Britain and other Western nations.
~
SOMALIA
@
Unlike the population in many African nations, the people of Somalia are remarkably homogeneous in their language, culture, and identity. Most are nomadic or seminomadic herders; only a quarter of the people have settled in permanent communities in southern Somalia. While Arabic and Somali are official languages, English and Italian are also spoken. Nearly all the Somali people are Sunni Muslims.
#
Somalia is a developing country that has not exploited its rich deposits of iron ore and gypsum. There is little manufacturing. The economy is agricultural, though activity is restricted to the vicinity of the rivers and certain coastal districts. A hot climate with recurring droughts, as well as a lack of railroads and paved highways, hamper economic development. The terrain ranges from central and southern flatlands to northern hills.
^
In the A.D. 800s or 900s, Arabs converted the ancestors of the Somalis who settled the region to Islam. They fought many religious wars with the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia between the 1300s and 1500s. The British, Italians, and French arrived in the region in the latter half of the 1800s and divided the Somali territory among themselves, with Ethiopia seizing Ogaden in the west. After World War II, Italy was made administrator of its former colony to prepare it for independence. In 1960 British Somaliland and Italian Somalia joined to form an independent republic. Since that time, Somalia has had many border clashes with Kenya and Ethiopia over the rights of Somalis living in these countries to determine their own destiny. Military leaders staged a successful coup in 1969, and subsequently changed the nation's name to Somali Democratic Republic and abolished all political parties. In 1976, however, the Somali Revolutionary Socialist party was formed.
~
SOUTH AFRICA
@
The government of South Africa classifies the country's population into four groups: black, white, colored, and Asian. Black African groups make up the majority population. The minority whites are either Afrikaners--of Dutch, German, and French descent--or British. Coloreds, people of mixed white, black, and Asian heritage, and Asians, primarily from India, make up the remaining population. Afrikaans and English are the official languages, although the blacks, coloreds, and Asians speak their own languages as well. The dominant religions are Christian; however, many groups follow traditional practices. The South African government enforces apartheid, a policy of racial segregation widely criticized for violating the rights of blacks, coloreds, and Asians.
#
The discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa in the late 1800s shaped the nation's prosperous economy. Revenues from mining promoted industry, and today South Africa is one of the richest and most highly developed countries in Africa. Mining remains a mainstay, as does agriculture; the nation is almost self-sufficient in food production. Many effects of apartheid, including discriminatory systems of education and job reservation, have kept the majority population from the benefits of national prosperity. The varied landscape features coastal beaches, plateaus, mountains, and deep valleys. The climate is temperate. The Republic of South Africa includes the enclave of Walvis Bay, situated on Africa's southwest coast.
^
Southern Africa has been inhabited for many thousands of years. Ancestors of the area's present African population had settled there by the time Portuguese explorers reached the Cape of Good Hope in the late 1400s. The first white settlers, ancestors of today's Afrikaners, established colonies in the seventeenth century. Britain gained control of the area in the late eighteenth century, and relations between Afrikaners and the British soon became strained. To escape British rule, many Afrikaners migrated northward to lands occupied by black Africans. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the late 1800s brought an influx of Europeans and further strained relations between Afrikaners and the British, with both groups striving for control of valuable mineral deposits. Two wars broke out, and in 1902 the British defeated the Afrikaners, or Boers, and incorporated the Boer territories into the British Empire. The British also subdued black Africans, and in 1910 they formed the white-controlled Union of South Africa. Afrikaner nationalism grew in the early twentieth century and led to the formation of the National party, which gained control in 1924 and again in 1948. The party began the apartheid system of separation of the races in the late forties, and subsequent decades saw increasing apartheid legislation and racial tension. In the 1970s and early 1980s, blacks were forcibly moved to nominally independent homelands and stripped of their South African citizenship. Foreign and internal pressure to dismantle apartheid has resulted in the beginnings of reform.
~
ST. HELENA
@
Most of the inhabitants of the island of St. Helena are of mixed European, Asian, and African heritage. St. Helena is a British colony with a distinctly British culture; English is the language spoken on the island, and the major religion is Anglican. Most people work as laborers or farmers, but many islanders have emigrated to Ascension Island, a dependency of St. Helena, in order to find employment.
#
Subsistence farmers grow crops for local consumption, producing mainly corn, potatoes, and vegetables, and other agricultural activity includes the raising of sheep, cattle, and goats. A crop growers' cooperative assists farmers by providing access to agricultural supplies and local markets. A plentiful supply of fish is found in the offshore waters, fueling a fishing industry that remains important to the colony's economy. In the 1970s a crafts industry was established on the island, and handicrafts, together with fish, constitute the island's exports. However, the colony remains dependent upon economic aid from the United Kingdom. The terrain of the volcanic island is rugged and mountainous. The climate is mild, cooled by South Atlantic trade winds. In addition to the main island of St. Helena, the colony includes the dependencies of Ascension Island and the Tristan da Cunha archipelago, made up of the islands of Tristan da Cunha, Gough, Inaccessible, and Nightingale. These islands are also of volcanic origin, and although the volcano on Tristan da Cunha was thought to be extinct, an unanticipated eruption occurred in 1961.
^
The Portuguese navigator Joao de Nova reached the uninhabited island in 1502, naming it St. Helena after the mother of the Emperor Constantine the Great. It was not until the late 1500s, however, that St. Helena became widely known, and, in time, it evolved into a stopover for ships traveling the trade routes from Europe to the East Indies. The Dutch were first to officially claim the island, annexing St. Helena to the Netherlands in 1633; they did not,however, attempt settlement. Administration by the British East India Company began in 1659, and the company's administration and British annexation became official in 1661. The British were able to withstand a Dutch attempt to take the island in 1673. From 1815 until his death in 1821 Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled on St. Helena, and it is mainly for this that the island is known today. In 1834 St. Helena became a colony, with administration of the island shifting from the East India Company to the British Crown. Local stories from these early days tell of slavery, mutinies, and harsh governments In 1922 the British government made Ascension Island a dependency of St. Helena, and in 1938 administration of the Tristan da Cunha island group passed to the St. Helena colony as well. In 1942, during World War II, a weather and radio station was built on the island of Tristan da Cunha by a South African defense unit. The British navy used the station for the rest of the war. St. Helena is administered by a governor assisted by a legislative council. The colony's Progressive party supports continued economic ties to the United Kingdom, while the Labor party wants to decrease St. Helena's dependence on British economic aid.
~
SUDAN
@
Sudan's population is composed of two distinct cultures--black African and Arab. African blacks of diverse ethnicity are a majority and are concentrated in the south, where they practice traditional lifestyles and beliefs and speak indigenous languages. Arabic-speaking Muslims, belonging to several ethnic groups, live mainly in northern and central regions.
#
The economy is based on agriculture; and irrigation has made arid Sudan a leading producer of cotton, although the land is vulnerable to drought. Forests provide for production of gum arabic, used in making candy and perfumes, while other crops include peanuts and sesame seeds. Economic activity is concentrated near the Nile River and its branches, as well as near water holes and wells. The mostly flat terrain is marked by eastern and western mountains; southern forests and savanna give way to swampland, scrubland, and northern desert. The climate varies from desert in the north to tropical in the south.
^
Egypt mounted repeated invasions of what is now northern Sudan beginning about 300 B.C. Sudan remained a collection of small independent states until 1821, when Egypt conquered and unified the northern portion. Egypt was unable to establish control over the south, which was often raided by slavers. In 1881 a Muslim leader began uniting various groups in a revolt against Egyptian rule, and success came four years later. His successor ruled until 1898, when British and Egyptian forces reconquered the land. Renamed the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the region was ruled jointly by Egypt and Britain, with British administration dominating. Since gaining independence in 1956, a series of military coups, a continuing civil war, and severe famine have burdened Sudan with political and economic instability.
~
SWAZILAND
@
About 95 percent of the people of Swaziland are black Africans called Swazi, though small minorities of white Europeans and Zulus also live in the country. The two official languages are English and siSwati. Government and official business is conducted primarily in English. More than half the Swazi belong to Christian churches, while others practice traditional African religions.
#
Most Swazi are subsistence farmers. Cattle are highly prized for their own sake but are being used increasingly for milk, meat, and profit. Europeans own nearly half the land in Swaziland and raise most of the cash crops, including fruits, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and wood. About half the nation's income comes from European-owned mining operations, and major exports include asbestos. Swaziland also has deposits of coal, pottery clay, gold, and tin. The country's mountains and forests have brought a growing tourist industry. The climate is temperate.
^
According to legend, the Swazi originally came from the area near Maputo. British traders and Dutch farmers from South Africa first reached Swaziland in the 1830s; more whites arrived in the 1880s when gold was discovered. Swazi leaders unknowingly granted many concessions to the whites at this time. After the Boer War, Britain assumed administration of Swaziland and ruled until 1967. Swaziland became independent in 1968. The British designed a constitution, but many Swazi thought it disregarded their traditions and interests. In 1973, King Sobhuza abolished this constitution, suspended the legislature, and appointed a commission to produce a new constitution. Sobhuza ruled until his death in 1982, and King Mswati III was installed in 1986.
~
TANZANIA
@
The largely rural African population of Tanzania consists of more than 130 ethnic groups; most speak a distinct language. Religious beliefs are nearly evenly divided among Christian, Muslim, and traditional religions.
#
Agriculture accounts for the most export earnings and employs 80 percent of the work force. Yet two-thirds of the land cannot be cultivated because of lack of water and tsetse-fly infestation. Mainland farmers grow cassava, corn, and beans, while other cash crops include coffee and cashews. Zanzibar and Pemba islands are famous sources of cloves. Diamonds, salt, and iron are important mineral resources. Hot, humid coastal plains; an arid central plateau; and temperate lake and highland areas characterize mainland Tanzania. The climate is equatorial and includes monsoons.
^
The northern mainland has fossil remains of some of humanity's earliest ancestors. Subsequent early inhabitants were gradually displaced by Bantu farmers and Nilotes. Arabs were trading with coastal groups as early as the eighth century, and by the early 1500s the Portuguese had claimed the coastal region. They were displaced in the 1700s by Arabs, who subsequently established a lucrative slave trade. Germans began colonizing the coast in 1884 and six years later signed an agreement with Great Britain, which secured German dominance along the coast and made Zanzibar a British protectorate. After World War I, Britain received part of German East Africa from the League of Nations as a mandate and renamed it Tanganyika. The area became a trust territory under the United Nations following World War II. The country achieved independence in 1961, and two years later Zanzibar received its independence as a constitutional monarchy under the sultan. A 1964 revolt by the African majority overthrew the sultan, and Zanzibar and Tanganyika subsequently united and became known as Tanzania.
~
TOGO
@
Almost all the people of Togo are black Africans, coming primarily from the Ewe, Kabye, and Mina ethnic groups. Most of the population lives in the south and practices traditional religions. Significant Christian and Muslim minorities exist.
#
Togo is an agricultural country, but productive land is scarce. Fishing is a major industry in the coastal areas. Togo has one of the world's largest phosphate reserves. Much of Togo is mountainous, with a sandy coastal plain. The climate is hot and humid.
^
Togo's original inhabitants were probably the ancestors of the present-day central mountain people. Ewes entered the south in the 1300s, and refugees from war-torn northern countries settled in the north between the 1500s and 1800s. For two hundred years, European ships raided the coastal region in search of slaves. In 1884 Germany claimed the territory. After World War I, Togoland became a League of Nations mandate governed by Britain and France. The mandate was made a United Nations trust territory following World War II and remained under British and French administration. British Togoland voted to join the Gold Coast and nearby British-administered territories in 1957 and became the independent nation of Ghana. French Togoland voted to become a republic in 1956 with internal self-government within the French Union, although the United Nations did not accept this method of ending the trusteeship. Togo peacefully severed its ties with France in 1960 and gained independence the same year. Internal political strife and military dominance of the government have characterized Togo's years of independence.
~
TUNISIA
@
Tunisians are descended from a mix of Berber and Arab ethnic groups. Nearly all Tunisians are Muslim. Arabic is the official language, but French is widely spoken. Tunisia is a leader in the Arab world in promoting rights for women. A large middle class and equitable land distribution characterize its society.
#
Tunisia is an agricultural country; wheat, barley, citrus fruits, and olives are important crops. Oil from deposits discovered in the 1960s supplies domestic needs and serves as a major export, along with phosphates and other chemicals. Tourism is a growing industry, and despite an unemployment problem, Tunisia has a more balanced economy than many of its neighbors. Tunisia's terrain ranges from a well-watered and fertile northern area to more arid central and southern regions.
^
Phoenicians began the Carthaginian Empire in Tunisia about 1100 B.C. In 146 B.C. Romans conquered Carthage and ruled Tunisia for six hundred years. Arab Muslims from the Middle East gained control of most of North Africa in the seventh century, influencing the religion and overall culture of the region. Tunisia became part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire in the late 1500s, and in 1881 France succeeded in establishing a protectorate in the area. Nationalistic calls for Tunisian independence began before World War I and gained momentum by the 1930s. When Tunisia gained independence in 1956, more than half of the European population emigrated, severely damaging the economy. A year later Tunisia abolished its monarchy and became a republic. After a thirty-year rule, Habib Bourguiba was deposed in 1987. Tunisia continues to maintain a balance between pro-Western and Arab positions.
~
UGANDA
@
Primarily a rural nation, Uganda has a largely African population, which is composed of various ethnic groups. Numerous differences divide Uganda's peoples and have traditionally inspired conflict. Though English is the official language, Luganda and Swahili are widely used, along with indigenous Bantu and Nilotic languages. Most Ugandans are Christian, but Muslims and followers of traditional beliefs compose significant minorities.
#
Despite attempts to diversify the economy, the country remains largely agricultural. Uganda meets most of its own food needs and grows coffee, cotton, and tea commercially. Copper deposits account for most mining activity. Though Uganda straddles the equator, temperatures are modified by altitude. Most of the country is plateau, and Uganda benefits from its proximity to several major lakes.
^
Arab traders who traveled to the interior of Uganda in the 1830s found sophisticated kingdoms that had developed over several centuries. Trying to track the source of the Nile River, British explorers arrived in the 1860s and were followed by European missionaries. Britain quickly became a dominant force in eastern Africa, and part of modern Uganda became a British protectorate in 1894. Subsequent border adjustments brought Uganda to its present boundaries in 1926. After increasing demands for independence, moves toward autonomy began in the mid-1950s. Independence came in 1962, followed by internal conflicts and power struggles. In 1971 Major General Idi Amin Dada led a successful coup against President Obote and declared himself president. His dictatorship was rife with corruption, economic decline, and disregard for human rights. A force of Tanzanian troops and Ugandan exiles drove Amin out of Uganda in 1979. President Obote returned to power in 1980 but was forced from office in a 1985 military coup. A struggle within the military regime continues.
~
WESTERN SAHARA
@
Most Western Saharans are nomadic Arabs or Berbers. Because these nomads often cross national borders in their wanderings, the population of Western Sahara is in a constant state of flux. Islam is the principal religion, and Arabic is the dominant language.
#
Most of Western Sahara is desert, with a rocky, barren soil that severely limits agriculture. Mining of phosphate deposits began in 1972, and phosphates are now the primary export. Western Sahara is almost completely arid; rainfall is negligible, except along the coast.
^
By the fourth century B.C. Phoenicians and Romans had visited the area. Spain explored the region in the sixteenth century and gained control of the region in 1860, but Spanish Sahara was not designated a province of Spain until 1958. When Spanish control ceased in 1976, the area became known as Western Sahara. Mauritania and Morocco subsequently divided the territory, and Morocco gained control of valuable phosphate deposits. Fighting soon broke out between an independence movement, the Polisario Front, and troops from Morocco and Mauritania. In 1979 Mauritania gave up its claim to the area and withdrew. After years of conflict, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed in 1988 to a cease-fire and a referendum, which offered Western Saharans a choice between independence and integration with Morocco.
~
ZAIRE
@
The diverse population of Zaire is composed of over two hundred African ethnic groups, with Bantu peoples in the majority. Belgian settlers introduced French, but hundreds of indigenous languages are more widely spoken. Much of the population is Christian, another result of former European rule. Many non-Christians practice traditional or syncretic faiths such as Kimbanguism. The majority of Zairians are rural farmers.
#
Zaire is rich in mineral resources, particularly copper, cobalt, diamonds, and petroleum; mining has supplanted agriculture in economic importance and now dominates the economy. Agriculture continues to employ most Zairians, however, and subsistence farming is practiced in nearly every region. Industrial activity--especially petroleum refining and hydroelectric production--is growing. Zaire's terrain is composed of mountains and plateaus. The climate is equatorial, with hot and humid weather in the north and west, and cooler and drier conditions in the south and east.
^
The earliest inhabitants of modern Zaire were probably Pygmies who settled in the area thousands of years ago. By the A.D. 700s, sophisticated civilizations had developed in what is now southeastern Zaire. In the early 1500s, the Portuguese began the forced emigration of black Africans for slavery. Other Europeans came to the area as the slave trade grew, but the interior remained relatively unexplored until the 1870s. Belgian King Leopold II realized the potential value of the region, and in 1885 his claim was recognized. Belgium took control from Leopold in 1908, renaming the colony the Belgian Congo. Nationalist sentiment grew until rioting broke out in 1959. The country, which was then called the Congo, gained independence in 1960, and a weak government assumed control. Violent civil disorder, provincial secession, and a political assassination characterized the next five years. The country stabilized under the rule of President Mobutu Sese Seko, a former army general. However, widespread charges of corruption have strengthened the cause of rebels based in Angola.
~
ZAMBIA
@
Virtually all Zambians are black Africans belonging to one of more than seventy Bantu-speaking ethnic groups. Besides the indigenous Bantu languages, many speak English, a reflection of decades of British influence. Although most Zambians are Christian, small minorities are Hindu, Muslim, or hold indigenous beliefs. Most Zambians are subsistence farmers in small villages; however, the mining industry has caused many people to move to urban areas, where wages are rising.
#
The economy is based on copper, Zambia's major export. In an attempt to diversify the economy, the government has emphasized the development of agriculture to help achieve an acceptable balance of trade. Zambia is a subtropical nation marked by high plateaus and great rivers.
^
European explorers in the nineteenth century discovered an established society of Bantu-speaking inhabitants. In 1888 Cecil Rhodes and the British South Africa Company obtained a mineral-rights concession from local chiefs; and Northern and Southern Rhodesia, now Zambia and Zimbabwe, came under British influence. Northern Rhodesia became a British protectorate in 1924. In 1953 Northern Rhodesia was combined with Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, now Malawi, to form a federation, despite African- nationalist opposition to the white-controlled minority government in Southern Rhodesia. The federation was dissolved in 1963, and Northern Rhodesia became the independent Republic of Zambia in 1964. Zambia follows a foreign policy of nonalignment.
~
ZIMBABWE
@
The great majority of Zimbabweans are black Africans of Bantu descent, with a small but economically significant minority of white Europeans. Most Zimbabweans are subsistence farmers who live in small villages. The influence of British colonization is seen in the official language, English, and in the influence of Christianity.
#
Zimbabwe's natural mineral resources have played a key role in the country's sustained economic growth. The subtropical climate supports the exportation of many agricultural products and makes large-scale cattle ranching feasible. Though primarily a landlocked country of high plateaus, transportation of goods is facilitated by an excellent system of paved roads and railways.
^
Zimbabwe was populated by Bantu groups until European exploration in the nineteenth century. British influence began in 1888, when Cecil Rhodes and the British South Africa Company obtained mineral rights to the area from local chiefs. Eventually, the region was divided under British rule as Southern Rhodesia, or present-day Zimbabwe, and Northern Rhodesia, or modern Zambia. In 1953, Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland, now Malawi, formed a federation that ended in discord after ten years; Zambia and Malawi gained their independence, and Southern Rhodesia, which remained under British control, became Rhodesia. In response to British pressure to accept black-majority rule, Rhodesian whites declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, which led to economic sanctions imposed by the United Nations. These sanctions and years of antigovernment violence finally forced agreement to the principle of black-majority rule. In 1980 the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front won a majority of seats in the House of Representatives, and Rhodesia became independent Zimbabwe. Despite Zimbabwe's move toward stability since independence, some internal unrest continues.
~
AMERICAN SAMOA
@
Ethnically and linguistically, the people of American Samoa are the same as those of Western Samoa: mainly Samoan-speaking Polynesians, with a minority of Samoan-European descent. The majority of American Samoans are bilingual, speaking English in addition to Samoan. Most live in rural villages on Tutuila, the main island and location of the capital of Pago Pago, but more American Samoans live on the United States mainland and in Hawaii than live on the islands themselves.
#
American Samoa's industry is based on fishing, and activities include tuna canning and producing fish products. Most farming is on the subsistence level. In the 1960s, an economical expansion program, funded by the United States, improved transportation systems, medical and educational facilities, and the tourist and fish industries. Many benefits were short-lived, however. The seven islands are part of the South Pacific Island chain that includes Western Samoa, Tutuila, Aunuu, and the Manua group -- Tau, Ofu, and Olosega -- are volcanic in origin, and Rose and Swain islands are coral atolls. The terrain is mostly mountainous, and the climate is tropical.
^
More than two thousand years ago, the first inhabitants of the Samoan Islands probably migrated from eastern Melanesia. The first Europeans arrived at the islands in the early 1700s. Foreign competition for influence resulted in the division of the islands between the United States and Germany in 1900, with the United States receiving the eastern islands of Tutuila, Aunuu, and the Manua group, Swain Island was annexed in 1925. In 1976, American Samoans voted to elect their own governor, who had previously been appointed by the secretary of the interior.
~
AUSTRALIA
@
Australia's culture reflects a unique combination of British, other European, and aboriginal influences. Settlement and rule by the United Kingdom gave the country a distinctly British flavor, and many Australians trace their roots to early British settlers. Planned immigration also played a major role in Australia's development, bringing more than three million Europeans since World War II. Refugees, most recently from Southeast Asia, make up another group of incoming peoples. The country is home to a small number of aborigines. The nation's size and a relatively dry terrain have resulted in uneven settlement patterns, with people concentrated in the rainier southeastern coastal area. The population is mainly urban, though overall population density remains low.
#
Australia's economy is similar to economies in other developed nations, and is characterized by a postwar shift from agriculture to industry and services, as well as inflation and unemployment. Wool is a major export, and livestock raising takes place on relatively flat, wide grazing lands surrounding an arid central region. Commercial crop raising is concentrated on a fertile southeastern plain. Plentiful mineral resources provide for a strong mining industry. Australia is the world's smallest continent but one of its largest countries. The climate is varied, and part of the country lies within the tropics. Because it is south of the equator, Australia has seasons the reverse of those in the Northern Hemisphere.
^
Aboriginal peoples probably arrived about forty thousand years ago and established a hunter-gatherer society. The Dutch explored the area in the seventeenth century, but no claims were made until the eighteenth century, when British Captain James Cook found his way to the fertile east and annexed the land to Britain. The first colony, New South Wales, was founded in 1788, and many of the early settlers were British convicts. During the 1800s, a squatter movement spread the population to other parts of the island, and the discovery of gold led to a population boom. Demands for self-government soon began, and by the 1890s all the colonies were self-governing, with Britain maintaining control of foreign affairs and defense. Nationalism continued to increase, and a new nation, the Commonwealth of Australia, was created in 1901. Australia fought on the side of the British during both world wars, and postwar years saw increased attention paid to the rights of the dwindling aboriginal population. Since World War II, participation in international affairs has expanded, with attention turned particularly to Asian countries.
~
CHRISTMAS ISLAND
@
Most of the inhabitants of Christmas Island are Chinese, with minorities including Malays, Europeans, Indians, and Eurasians. Although lying about 1,000 miles (1,609 kilometers) from Australia, Christmas Island is an external territory of that country, and in 1981 Christmas Islanders gained new rights with Australia's Migration Act. Under the provisions of this act, the island's inhabitants can become residents of Australia and are eligible for Australian citizenship. In addition, the government of Australia will assist any Asian islanders who desire to settle elsewhere. Most of these emigrants choose western Australia as their destination.
#
The economy of Christmas Island is dependent upon the phosphate rock deposits found in various locations. Most residents are employed in mining the rock and work for the Phosphate Mining Company of Christmas Island Limited, which is a company of the Australian government. Christmas Island also exports phosphate rock, shipping it to Australia, New Zealand, and Asian nations. Situated in the Indian Ocean, Christmas Island is the top of an underwater mountain, and its terrain is marked by steep slopes that rise from the coast to the central plateau. Tropical rain forest covers much of the island, and the climate is pleasant, with little temperature variation.
^
Long before any major powers showed an interest in Christmas Island, sailors and navigators were familiar with this tropical island situated south of Java, Borneo, and their other destinations. The United Kingdom annexed Christmas Island in 1888, and the following year it came under the administration of the governor of the Straits Settlements, a group of British colonies in Southeast Asia. In 1900, Britain made Christmas Island a dependency of Singapore, also a member of the Straits Settlements, and the island remained united with Singapore when the Straits Settlements dissolved in 1946. From 1942 to 1945, during World War II, the Japanese occupied Christmas Island. In 1958, Britain granted Australia sovereignty of Christmas Island.
~
COCOS ISLANDS
@
The Cocos Islands' majority groups is made up of Cocos Malay, the ancestors of Muslim workers brought from the Netherlands, East Indies, and Malays in the 1800s. Australians of European descent form a minority. Of the twenty-seven islands that make up the Cocos Islands, only West Island and Home Island are inhabited, and their combined population totals about 600. The Australian population lives on West Island, and the Cocos Malay live on Home Island. Following World War II, the Cocos Malay population underwent a resettlement program because their numbers had grown until the islands' copra plantation could no longer accommodate them. About 1,600 Cocos Malay moved to Christmas Island and the present-day Malaysian state of Sabah. In 1984, the Cocos Malay participated in a referendum to determine the future of their relationship with Australia, and they elected to integrate with that country and thus assume the rights and obligations of Australian citizens.
#
Coconut palms cover the Cocos Islands, and the territory's economy is based on the production of copra, dried coconut meat from which coconut oil is extracted. The islands' copra estate was owned and run by the Clunies-Ross family until 1978, when they sold their interests in the islands to Australia. In 1979, the Cocos Islands Cooperative Society Limited, run by the Cocos Malay community, took over management of the coconut plantation and the production of copra. The Cocoa Islands comprise flat, low-lying coral islands in two separate atolls -- North Keeling Island and the South Keeling Islands. In the South Keeling Island group, the main islands are West Island, which is the site of an airport; Home Island; Direction Island; South Island; and Horsburgh Island. The island's climate is pleasant, with cooling trade winds.
^
In 1609, Captain William Keeling, a seaman employed by the East India Company, discovered the uninhabited islands, but it wasn't until 1836 that the first settlers arrived. These were mostly Malay workers led by Alexander Hare, an Englishman who established a settlement on the South Keeling islands. A Scottish mariner, John Clunies-Ross, soon founded the island's second settlement, and when Hare left in 1831, Clunies-Ross took charge of Hare's community, developing a successful coconut economy and bringing in more workers. Britain annexed the islands in 1857 and in 1878 transferred administration of the islands from the colonial office to the government of Ceylon. In 1886, responsibility was passed to the government of the Straits Settlements, and that same year Queen Victoria issued an official document that gave all land above the high-water mark to Clunies-Ross and his heirs and successors in perpetuity. The islands became part of the Settlement of Singapore in 1903, and for about four years in the early 1940s responsibility once again passed temporarily to Ceylon. This situation ended in 1946, the United Nations Special Committee suggested that Australia assist the Cocos Malay community in becoming more independent of the Clunies-Ross copra estate. The solution came in 1978 when the Clunies-Ross family sold Australia all their interests in the islands, with the exception of the family home, thus ending United Nations and Australian criticism of their handling of workers. In 1979, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Council was set up, and as a result of the 1984 referendum in which the Cocos Malay community decided to integrate with Australia, the council has been given greater responsibility. The islands' electorate now has full voting rights in the Australian Parliament.
~
COOK ISLANDS
@
Of the fifteen islands, Rarotonga is the largest and most populated. Many of the islands' Polynesians are of Maori ancestry.
#
The economy is agricultural. In the north are coral islands; and in the south, volcanic. The climate is warm, with occasional hurricanes.
^
Captain James Cook arrived in the area in 1773. In 1888 the islands came under British protection, and in 1901 they were annexed to New Zealand. The islands can unilaterally declare independence from New Zealand at any time.
~
FIJI
@
Fiji's majority population is descended from laborers brought from British India between 1879 and 1916. Most Indians are Hindu, but a Muslim minority exists. Native Fijians are of Melanesian and Polynesian heritage, and most are Christian. English is the official language, a result of British rule; but Indians speak Hindustani, and the main Fijian dialect is Bauan. Tensions between the two groups occasionally arise because plantation owners, who are mainly Indian, must often lease their land from Fijians, the major landowners. About a hundred of the several hundred islands are inhabited.
#
The traditional sugar cane crop continues as the basis of Fiji's economy, and agricultural diversification is a current goal. Tourism is another economic contributor, and expansion of forestry is planned. Terrain varies from island to island and is characterized by mountains, valleys, rain forests, and fertile plains. The tropical islands are cooled by ocean breezes.
^
Little is known of Fiji's history prior to the arrival of Europeans. Melanesians probably migrated from Indonesia, followed by Polynesian settlers in the second century. After a Dutch navigator sighted Fiji in 1643, Captain James Cook of Britain visited the island in the eighteenth century. The nineteenth century saw the arrival of European missionaries, traders, and whalers, and several native wars. In 1874 tribal chiefs ceded Fiji to the British, who established sugar plantations and brought indentured Indian laborers. The country became independent in 1970. After declaring itself a republic in 1987, Fiji was ejected from the British Commonwealth.
~
FRENCH POLYNESIA
@
Most inhabitants are Polynesian, with minorities including Chinese and French. More than one hundred islands compose the five archipelagoes, and population and commercial activity is concentrated in Papeete on Tahiti. Although per capita income is relatively high, wealth is not equally distributed. Emigration from the poorer islands to Tahiti is common. Polynesia's reputation as a tropical paradise has attracted European and American writers and artists, including French painter Paul Gauguin.
#
The islands' economy is based on natural resources; coconut, mother-of-pearl, and tourism contribute to the economy. This South Pacific territory, located south of the equator and midway between South America and Australia, is spread over roughly 1.5 million square miles (3.9 million square km) and is made up of the Marquesas Islands, the Society Islands, the Tuamotu Archipelago, the Gambier Islands, and the Austral Islands. The Marquesas, known for their beauty, form the northernmost group. The Society Islands, southwest of the Marquesas, include Tahiti and Bora-Bora, both popular tourist spots. The Tuamoto Archipelago lies south of the Marquesas and east of the Society Islands, the Gambier Islands are situated at the southern tip of the Tuamotu group, and the Austral Islands lie to the southwest. The region includes both volcanic and coral islands, and the climate is tropical, with a rainy season extending from November to April.
^
The original settlers probably came from Micronesia and Melanesia in the east. Europeans began arriving around the sixteenth century. By the late 1700s they had reached the five major island groups, and visitors to the area included mutineers from the British vessel Bounty. By the 1880s the islands had come under French rule, although they did not become an overseas territory until 1946. During European settlement, many Polynesians died as a result of exposure to foreign diseases. The French use several of the islands for nuclear testing.
~
GUAM
@
The main ethnic group in Guam is the Chamorros, who are of mixed Micronesian, Filipino, and Spanish ancestry. Because of the United States military base and its fluctuating personnel, the size and nature of the population vary.
#
The United States military and a growing tourist industry provide employment of the islands, and there is some light industry as well. Many residents, however, continue to practice subsistence farming. The largest island in the Mariana Islands, Guam has hills and mountains in the south and a flat plateau in the north. The climate is tropical.
^
Magellan arrived on Guam in 1521, and in 1565 Spain took formal possession of the island. In 1898, following the Spanish-American War, Spain ceded the island to the United States. It became a major United States military base, and during World War II the Japanese occupied the island. The people of Guam were granted United States citizenship in 1950; however, they do not vote in national elections.
~
KIRIBATI
@
The people of Kiribati, a nation of thirty-three islands in the central Pacific, are mostly Micronesian. Almost all the population lives on the Gilbert Islands in small villages and practices Roman Catholicism or Protestantism. English, the official language, and Gilbertese are spoken.
#
A small, unskilled work force combined with small land area and few natural resources have given Kiribati a subsistence economy. Phosphate and copra are the main exports. Kiribati depends on economic aid from Australia, New Zealand, and Great Britain. The islands of Kiribati are almost all coral reefs, composed of hard sand and little soil; many surround a lagoon. The climate is tropical.
^
Kiribati was invaded by Samoa in the 1400s. From 1916 the islands were part of the British Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Fighting between the United States and Japan took place during World War II on Tarawa Island. The Ellice Islands became independent in 1978 as the nation of Tuvalu and the Republic of Kiribati came into existence a year later.
~
MARSHALL ISLANDS
@
Most Marshall Islanders are Micronesian, although there is a Polynesian minority. Both English and Malay-Polynesian languages are spoken on the islands.
#
The main industry of the Marshalls is coconut growing, and many islanders continue to practice subsistence farming and fishing. The islands remain dependent upon economic aid from the United States. Part of the area of the Pacific known as Micronesia, the Marshall Islands consist of thirty atolls and five individual islands. The two major island groups are the eastern Ratak Chain and the western Ratak Chain. The coral islands are mostly flat and low-lying, and the climate is hot and rainy.
^
The history of the Marshall Islands prior to the arrival of Europeans is largely unknown, but it is likely that the earliest settlers came from Southeast Asia. Spanish ships sailed through the area in the 1500s, but treacherous waters prevented rapid settlement. The islands received their name from Captain John Marshall, a Briton who reached the Marshalls in 1788. In the 1880s, with Britain's approval, the Marshall Islands became a German protectorate, and in 1914, during World War I, Japan seized the islands. Following the war, the Marshall Islands, along with the other islands of the region, were declared a League of Nations mandate under Japanese administration. During World War II the United States capture the islands from Japan, and in 1947 the Marshall Islands were incorporated into the United States Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands established by the United Nations. Between 1946 and 1958 the United States conducted sixty-four nuclear test explosions on the islands of Bikini and Enewetak. Resettlement of these islands began in 1977, and about 50 of the 450 residents displaced by the tests were allowed to return home. Increasing self-government led to a 1978 constitution that established the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The constitutional government was recognized by a United States order in 1979, in 1982 the Marshall Islands signed a free association compact with the United States, and in 1986 the compact was finalized. Official recognition of the new republic awaits United Nations approval and the dissolution of the trust territory.
~
MICRONESIA, FEDERATED STATES OF
@
Most inhabitants of Truk, Yap, Kosrae, and Ponape -- the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia -- are Micronesian, a group of mixed Melanesian, Polynesian, and Malaysian origin.
#
Subsistence farming and fishing are the primary activities for most islanders. Coconuts are the main cash crop. The states continue to depend upon economic assistance from the United States, however. Each of the four states comprises a number of islands and, together with the territory of Palau, forms the Caroline archipelago, made up of volcanic and coral islands. The climate is tropical.
^
The ancestors of today's population probably arrived in the region more than 2,500 years ago, although evidence shows some islands may have been inhabited as long as 4,000 years ago. Spanish and German competition for the islands came to an end in 1899 when Germany purchased all the Caroline and Mariana islands, except Guam, from Spain. After Japanese occupation during World War I, the islands became a League of Nations mandate administered by Japan. In 1947 the islands became part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which was established by the United Nations and placed under United States administration. In 1978, Truk, Yap, Kosrae, and Ponape, along with the Marshall Islands and Palau, voted on a constitution that would unite Micronesia into a single entity. The Marshall Islands and Palau rejected the proposal, but Truk, Yap, Kosrae, and Ponape elected to become the Federated States of Micronesia. The United States recognized the constitution in 1979, and in 1982 a compact of free association was signed. The compact received final approval in 1986; however, the change in status from trusteeship to independent country requires that the United Nations officially rescind the trusteeship.
~
MIDWAY ISLANDS
@
Midway has no native peoples, and United States military personnel and government employees constitute the territory's population. The Midway Islands are within a Naval Defense Sea Area; therefore, no one can come to the islands without first receiving permission from the United States navy.
#
The strategically situated Midway Islands are used as a United States naval station and air base. Sand Island is the site of an airstrip that is used only for military supply flights and as a refueling station for military aircraft. The meteorological division of the United States navy operates a weather station on the Midway Islands, conducting research and providing data for world use. In addition to the naval property, a portion of the islands has been designated a national wildlife reserve administered by the United States Department of the Interior. The bird life protected here includes albatross, frigate birds, and terns. The islands of Midway are situated approximately 1,200 miles (1,931 kilometers) northwest of the U.S. state of Hawaii. The unincorporated territory is made up of a coral atoll that encircles two islands, Sand and Eastern. The climate is tropical.
^
In 1859 Captain N.C. Brooks of the Hawaiian ship Gambia discovered the uninhabited islands, and for a time Midway was known as Brooks Island. Captain William Reynolds was the next American to arrive, and in 1867, sailing on the U.S.S. Lackawana, he claimed Midway as a United States possession. United States president Theodore Roosevelt declared Midway a naval reservation in 1903, and a cable relay station was erected that same year. Development of the island by the United States continued, and in the 1930s a commercial airport and facilities for housing airplane travelers overnight were built. In 1939 construction workers from the United States began turning Eastern Island into a submarine and air base. By August 1941 their work had been completed, and in December of that year the Japanese attacked Midway on their return flight from the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Throughout World War II, the Japanese were unable to capture the island. From June 4 to June 6, 1942, United States planes attacked a Japanese fleet off the shores of Midway. Four of Japan's aircraft carriers and one cruiser were destroyed in the battle, virtually crippling the Japanese navy. Losses on the United States side included an aircraft carrier and a destroyer. This sea-and-air battle became known as the Battle of Midway, and many believe the United States victory at Midway was the turning point of the war in the Pacific. Today, Midway continues its role as naval station and air base for the United States military. The Midway Islands' political status is that the unincorporated territory of the United States, and the Department of the Navy administers the islands.
~
NAURU
@
Indigenous Nauruans are a mix of Polynesian, Micronesian, and Melanesian stock, and many residents are from other Pacific islands. Nauruan is the language of most inhabitants, but English is widely spoken. Nearly all Nauruans are Christian.
#
The economy depends primarily on its sole resource, phosphates; the government is establishing trust funds to support islanders when the resource is depleted. With limited agriculture, nearly all food must be imported. Nauru is one of the smallest countries in the world. Most of the coral island is a plateau, and the climate is tropical.
^
Nauru was most likely settled by castaways from nearby islands. Noted by a British explorer in 1798, Nauru remained autonomous until it came under German control in 1881. In 1914 Germany surrendered the island, and it was subsequently mandated to Australia, Britain, and New Zealand. World War II brought occupation by Japan. Nauru reverted to Australian rule in 1947 as a trusteeship. It became independent in 1968 and gained control of European interests in the phosphate industry in 1970.
~
NEW CALEDONIA
@
The largest ethnic group in New Caledonia, a group of Pacific islands northeast of Australia, is the Melanesian, or Kanak. People of French descent make up the second largest group, with Asians and Polynesians composing significant minorities. New Caledonia's status as an overseas French territory is reflected in its languages, which include French as well as regional dialects, and in a population that is largely Christian.
#
The principal economic activity, the mining and smelting of nickel, has fallen off in recent years. Small amounts of coffee and copra are exported, and tourism is important in the capital. Possessing few resources, New Caledonia imports almost all finished products from France. The main island, also called New Caledonia, is mountainous and accounts for almost 90 percent of the territory's land area. Smaller islands include the Isle of Pines, Loyalty and Belep islands. The climate is tropical.
^
New Caledonia was settled by Melanesians about 2000 B.C. Europeans first reached the main island in 1774, when Captain James Cook of Britain gave it its present name. In 1853 France annexed New Caledonia and used the main island as a penal colony until the turn of the century. During World War II the islands served as a base for the United States military. Officially a French overseas territory since 1946, New Caledonia experienced violence in the 1980s, stemming from the desire of the Kanak population for independence.
~
NEW ZEALAND
@
The majority of New Zealanders are descended from Europeans, mostly Britons, who arrived in the 1800s. Of Polynesian descent, the indigenous Maori form the largest minority. After a period of decline following the arrival of the Europeans, the Maori population has been increasing. The major languages are English, the official tongue, and Maori. Most New Zealanders live on North Island. Christian religions are observed by many residents, and the Maori have incorporated some Christian elements into their beliefs.
#
Success in agriculture and trade has allowed New Zealand to overcome its small work force, remoteness from major markets, and a relative lack of natural resources. A terrain with much ideal grazing land and a climate that is temperate year-round have encouraged cattle and sheep farming. Manufacturing, including the food-processing and paper industries, is an expanding sector, as is tourism. New Zealand consists of two large islands--North Island and South Island--and many smaller islands scattered throughout the South Pacific. The nation administers several island territories. The scenic terrain is greatly varied, ranging from fjords and mountains to a volcanic plateau.
^
The Maori, the original settlers, are thought to have arrived around A.D. 1000. In 1642 they fought off the Dutch, the first Europeans to reach the area. Captain James Cook of Britain charted the islands in the late 1700s. Soon after, European hunters and traders, drawn by the area's whales, seals, and forests, began to arrive. Maori chiefs signed the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, establishing British sovereignty, and British companies began to send settlers to New Zealand. Subsequent battles between settlers and Maori ended with the Maori's defeat in 1872, but European diseases and weapons continued to reduce the Maori population. In 1907 New Zealand became a self-governing dominion of Britain; formal independence came forty years later. New Zealand supported Britain in both world wars, but foreign policy has recently focused on Southeast Asia and the South Pacific. The country has banned vessels carrying nuclear weapons through its waters, which has strained relations with the United States.
~
NIUE
@
Niue has a mainly Polynesian population that speaks indigenous tongues. Because of Niue's association with New Zealand, English is widely spoken.
#
The economy is based on agriculture, and in addition to surplus crops, handicrafts are exported. The coral island's climate is tropical.
^
More than one thousand years ago Niue's first inhabitants arrived either from Samoa or another eastern Pacific island. In 1774 Captain James Cook of Britain came to Niue, calling it Savage Island because of the hostility of the inhabitants. The island did not come under British rule until 1900. In 1901 Niue was annexed to New Zealand, and the island became a self-governing territory of New Zealand in 1974.
~
NORFOLK ISLAND
@
The island's population comprises descendants of Bounty mutineers, called "islanders," and immigrants from Australia and New Zealand, or "mainlanders." Tourism is the main economic contributor. Of volcanic origin, Norfolk Island has a subtropical climate. Captain James Cook arrived at the uninhabited island in 1774, and for a time Norfolk served as a penal colony. In 1914 Norfolk Island became an external territory of Australia.
#
SEE PEOPLE
^
SEE PEOPLE
~
NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS
@
The Chamorros, of mixed descent, are a majority. Most income comes from tourism, and the climate is tropical. Inhabited for more than three thousand years, the Northern Marianas were ruled by Spain, Germany, and Japan. In 1947 the United Nations declared the Northern Marianas part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific islands, under United States administration. Upon the dissolution of the trust territory, the Northern Marianas will officially become a U.S. commonwealth.
#
SEE PEOPLE
^
SEE PEOPLE
~
PALAU
@
Palau's majority group is Micronesian, and languages include English as well as Malay-Polynesian tongues. The islands are divided into six states, each with its own governor, but the village chiefs continue to wield power as well.
#
Government jobs provide for much employment, but the service sector is on the rise as tourism expands. Foreign investment has increased as well. Phosphate deposits on the island of Angaur once fueled a prosperous export industry, but reserves were depleted in 1955, and economic plans include further exploration and exploitation of natural resources. The United States continues to supply economic assistance. Palau is made up of a group of islands in the Caroline Islands. The northern islands in the group are volcanic, and the southern islands are coral. The climate is tropical.
^
The Spanish seafarer Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was the first to sight the Palau Islands, in 1543. Spaniards controlled the islands until 1899, when Spain sold Palau to Germany. Following World War I, Palau came under Japan's jurisdiction as a League of Nations mandate. Japan invested in improvements for certain islands, constructing a naval base on Peleliu, and soon an influx of Japanese settlers boosted the islands' population. Some of World War II's bloodiest battles between the United States and Japan took place at Peleliu in 1944. War memorials for both Japanese and American soldiers stand on the island today, and the remains of warships and planes are found in the offshore waters. After the war, in 1947, Palau along with the Northern Marianas, the islands of the federated States of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands were declared a United Nations trust territory under United States administration. Palau adopted a constitution in 1980, declaring itself the Republic of Palau, and a constitutional government was installed in 1981. After initial problems regarding the status of nuclear weapons in Palau, a compact of free association with the United States, which was signed in 1982, was approved in 1987. Under this agreement, a continuing source of controversy in Palau, the United States has the right to control military and defense activities, providing economic assistance in return. However, the fulfillment of the compact is dependent upon United Nations recognition of an independent Palau and termination of the trust territory agreement. Palau's first constitutionally elected president was assassinated in 1985.
~
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
@
Almost all inhabitants are Melanesians belonging to several thousand culturally diverse and geographically isolated communities. More than seven hundred languages are spoken, but most people also speak Motu or a dialect of English. European missionaries brought Christianity, but faiths based on spirit and ancestor worship predominate. The traditions of village life remain strong.
#
The economic supports are agriculture, which employs most of the work force, and copper and gold mining. Papua New Guinea has other mineral resources, as well as potential for forestry. The nation consists of the eastern half of New Guinea Island, plus New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville, and six hundred smaller islands. Terrain includes mountains, volcanoes, broad valleys, and swamps; the climate is tropical.
^
Settlers from Southeast Asia are thought to have arrived as long as fifty thousand years ago. Isolated native villages were found by the Spanish and Portuguese in the early 1500s. In 1884 Germany annexed the northeastern part of the island of New Guinea and its offshore islands, and Britain took control of the southeastern section and its islands. Australia assumed administration of the British territory, known as Papua, in 1906 and seized the German regions, or German New Guinea, during World War I. The League of Nations granted Australia a mandate to New Guinea in 1920. After being occupied by Japan in World War II, Papua and New Guinea were united as an Australian territory from 1945 to 1946. Papua New Guinea gained independence in 1975. The island of Bougainville seceded a few months later but rejoined the nation in 1976. Papua New Guinea has close ties with Australia and a moderate foreign policy.
~
PITCAIRN
@
The population of Pitcairn is of mixed European and Tahitian ancestry, most descendants of the British sailor Fletcher Christian and his fellow mutineers from H.M.S. Bounty. Uninhabited for about three years in the late 1850s, Pitcairn has been permanently occupied since 1859. In the past decades emigration to New Zealand has been an ongoing trend.
#
Fertile soil provide for subsistence farming and some export crops as well. Many islanders also engage in fishing and sell handicrafts to the passengers of the ships that dock here. Pitcairn is a rugged, volcanic island, and its shores are nearly inaccessible. The colony includes the uninhabited islands of Henderson, Dulcie, and Oeno. The climate is mild.
^
More than six hundred years ago, Polynesians likely lived on Pitcairn off and on, but it was uninhabited when the British admiral Philip Carteret arrived in 1767, naming the island after the midshipman who first sighted it. In 1789 crew members of H.M.S. Bounty, led by Fletcher Christian, carried out a mutiny in the South Pacific, and the following year Christian, eight other mutineers, six Tahitian women, and twelve Tahitian men left Tahiti and sailed to Pitcairn. Violence marked the community's early days; by 1800 John Adams was the only surviving adult male. In 1808 a United States ship inadvertently arrived at the island, yet Pitcairn remained largely unheard of until 1814 when the British ships Briton and Tagus reached its shores. Between 1814 and 1831 the population grew from forty to eighty-six, and concern about drought and dwindling resources caused the Pitcairners to leave for Tahiti. Unable to adjust to the life-style of that island, six months later they returned to Pitcairn. In 1838 the islanders obtained a constitution and universal adult suffrage, and most Pitcairners trace the island's colonial status back to this time. Pitcairn was again evacuated when the United Kingdom arranged for resettlement on Norfolk Island in 1856, but forty-three Pitcairners returned to the island between 1859 and 1864. Pitcairn was officially made a British colony under the Settlements Act of 1887, and the island continues as a colony of the United Kingdom.
~
SOLOMON ISLANDS
@
Over 90 percent of the people are Melanesian, and the remainder are Polynesian, European, Chinese, and Micronesian. English is the official language, but some ninety local languages are also spoken. The dominant religion is Protestantism, and religious minorities include Roman Catholics and followers of local traditions. The population is primarily rural, and much of its social structure is patterned on traditional village life.
#
The economy is based on subsistence farming and exports of fish, wood, copra, and some spices and palm-oil. Food, machinery, gasoline, and manufactured goods must be imported. Terrain ranges from forested mountains to low-lying coral atolls. The climate is warm and moist, with heavy annual rainfall.
^
Hunter-gatherers lived on the islands as early as 1000 B.C. Because of disease and native resistance, early attempts at colonization failed, and Europeans did not firmly establish themselves until the mid-1800s. Britain declared the islands a protectorate in 1893. The area was the site of fierce battles between the Japanese and Allied forces during World War II, and following the war, moves were made toward independence. In 1978, the Solomon Islands adopted a constitution and became a sovereign nation.
~
TOKELAU
@
Most of Tokelau's people are Polynesian, but widespread intermarriage in the nineteenth-century between Polynesians and beachcombers of American, Portuguese, Scottish, French, and German stock gave many a mixed ancestry. Tokelauan, a language with similarities to Samoan and Tuvaluan, is spoken throughout the islands. The Tokelauans share some cultural characteristics with Samoans, but the life-style of the atolls is more closely related to that of Tuvalu. All Tokelauans are Christian, either Congregational or Roman Catholic. A resettlement program beginning in the 1960s and lasting until the mid-1970s resulted in the emigration of many Tokelauans to New Zealand.
#
Tokelau has few natural resources, and many inhabitants are dependent upon money sent from relatives who have emigrated to New Zealand. Agriculture provides for the production of copra, but all other farming is done at the subsistence level. Coconuts, breadfruit, papaw, and other fruits are grown for food. In an attempt to diversify crop production, the government has tested various types of seeds, but poor-quality soil continues to limit the potential of agriculture. Fish and shellfish are found throughout the waters around the islands, and the islanders hope to improve the size of the catch through the use of various mechanical aids. Industrial activities include the production of copra, woodwork, and woven craft items, such as mats and bags. Tokelau consists of three coral atolls: Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo. The climate is tropical.
^
According to tradition, the ancestors of today's population came from Samoa, Rarotonga, and Nanumanga. In 1765 a British commodore sighted the uninhabited island of Atafu, and another Briton came upon Atafu and Nukunonu in 1791. The Europeans did not know of the island of Fakaofo until 1835, when an American whaling ship sailed past. Following nearly twenty years under unofficial British administration, the islands of Tokelau formally became a British protectorate in 1889. Britain placed the islands with Western Samoa, then Tonga, and then Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Administrative problems arose, however, because of distance, and New Zealand began administering the islands from Western Samoa in 1925. In 1948 the Tokelau Islands Act placed the islands within the international boundaries of New Zealand. The islands continue as a territory of New Zealand.
~
TONGA
@
Almost all Tongans are Polynesian and follow Methodist and other Christian religions. About two-thirds of the population lives on the main island of Tongatapu.
#
Tonga's economy is dominated by both subsistence and plantation agriculture, while manufacturing is almost nonexistent. Most of the islands are coral reefs, and many have fertile soil. The climate is subtropical.
^
Tonga has been settled since at least 500 B.C. In the late 1700s, a civil war broke out among three lines of kings who sought to establish rulership. In 1822 Wesleyan Methodist missionaries converted one of the warring kings to Christianity. His faction prevailed, and he ruled as George Tupou I, founder of the present dynasty. Tonga came under British protection in 1900 but retained its autonomy in internal matters. The nation became fully independent in 1970 and maintains close relations with Great Britain, as well as its Pacific neighbors.
~
TUVALU
@
The small island nation of Tuvalu has a largely Polynesian population centered in rural villages. Tuvaluans speak the Tuvaluan language, derived from Polynesian, and many also speak English, reflecting ties with England.
#
The soil of the Tuvaluan coral-reef islands is poor, and there are few natural resources other than coconut palms. Copra and developed film are the primary exports, and many Tuvaluans weave mats and baskets for export. Tuvalu has minimal manufacturing and no mining. The nation consists of nine islands, most of them atolls surrounding lagoons. The climate is tropical.
^
Tuvalu's first inhabitants were probably Samoan immigrants. The islands were not seen by Europeans until 1568 and came under British control in the 1890s. Then called the Ellice Islands by Europeans, they were combined with the nearby Gilbert Islands in 1916 to form the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. The island groups were separated in 1975. The Ellice Islands were renamed Tuvalu and gained independence in 1978. One year later, the Gilbert Islands became independent Kiribati.
~
VANUATU
@
The majority of Vanuatuans are Melanesian. Europeans and Polynesians compose minorities. Languages include English and French, the languages of former rulers; and Bislama, a mixture of English and Melanesian. Most Vanuatuans are Christian, although indigenous religions are also practiced.
#
The economy is based on agriculture, and copra is the primary export crop. Fishing is also important, as is the growing tourist business. Narrow coastal plains, mountainous interiors, and a mostly hot, rainy climate characterize the more than eighty islands of Vanuatu.
^
In 1606 Portuguese explorers encountered indigenous Melanesian inhabitants on islands that now compose Vanuatu. Captain James Cook of Britain charted the islands in 1774 and named them the New Hebrides after the Hebrides islands of Scotland. British and French merchants and missionaries began to settle the islands in the early 1800s. To resolve conflicting interests, Great Britain and France formed a joint naval commission to oversee the area in 1887 and a condominium government in 1906. Demands for autonomy began in the 1960s, and the New Hebrides became the independent Republic of Vanuatu in 1980.
~
WAKE ISLAND
@
A possession of the United States, Wake Island has a population of about three hundred employees of the United States government and military. The three islets have not indigenous population, and there are no ethnic groups other than the Americans. For a period of several months during 1975, however, a large group of Vietnamese refugees en route to the United States were held here until transportation could be arranged. The United States government has considered using Wake Island as the relocation site for former inhabitants of the Bikini Atoll, which will remain uninhabitable well into the twenty-first century because of radiation resulting from United States nuclear weapons tests.
#
Wake Island is a United States military base and the site of an American weather station. The work force consists of air force personnel, civilians employed by the air force, and employees of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Association. Commercial as well as military flights use Wake Island as a stopover, generally only in emergency situations during flights from Honolulu to Tokyo or Guam. The atoll, situated midway between Hawaii and Guam \, is made up of three islets: Wake, Peale, and Wilkes. The climate is tropical, with occasional typhoons.
^
Pacific tradition holds that early Marshall Islanders used the three islets as a collection ground for birds and turtles. The first European to arrive was the Spanish explorer Mendana, who came in 1568 and found the atoll uninhabited. More than two centuries later, in 1796, the British sea captain William Wake reached the island and give it his name. During the eighteenth century, seafarers knew the atoll as Halcyon and Helsion as well as Wake Island, and a United States expedition led by Commodore Wilkes officially charted Wake Island in 1840. The Americans built a cable relay station on Wake Island in 1899, annexing the island to the United States. The island's significance was its location; a commercial air station, constructed in 1935, provided a stopover for flights to the East, and in 1939, the United States military established a naval and air base. Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the capture of Guam in 1941, the Japanese moved on to seize Wake Island. American bombing raids continued from 1942 until 1945, but the Japanese were able to hold the island, and United States personnel did not return until after the Japanese surrendered to the Allies in 1945. After a period of administration by the United States Federal Aviation Administration, jurisdiction of the island passed to the United States Air Force. Wake Island is currently administered by the air force in conjunction with the United States Department of the Interior.
~
WALLIS AND FUTUNA
@
The French overseas territory of Wallis and Futuna consists of two main island groups, and the population is made up on Roman Catholic Polynesians. Despite this seeming homogeneity, each island has its own language. Inhabitants of Wallis Island, known locally as Uvea, speak Wallisian, or East Uvean, a tongue related to Tongan. Futunan, often called East Futunan, is spoken on Futuna Island, and this language is related to Samoan. Although the majority of the people over age forty-five cannot speak French, it remains the official language. The current birthrate in the islands is high, and more than half the population is under twenty years old.
#
Most islanders engage in subsistence activities, and family income comes mainly from government employment or money sent home by emigrants working in New Caledonia. Small-scale crop production can, for the most part, meet the needs of the islanders, but a lack of fertile land, inefficient farming methods, soil depletion, and traditional division of the land into tiny plot leave little hope for the development of a successful farm industry. Onetime coconut plantations on Wallis ceased operation following a beetle infestations, and production of copra on Futuna is minimal. Most of the coconut crop is now used to feed pigs and other livestock. Fishing, a traditional food source, remains important throughout the islands and provides the staple of the islanders' diet. Since 1960 the government has attempted programs to improve both agricultural and fishing, but by 1985 the territorial assembly president had declared all such programs a failure. There is potential for a tourism industry; however, local chiefs holding traditional views generally oppose development of the islands for tourism, and hotel facilities and restaurants remain minimal. Two island groups make up Wallis and Futuna. Wallis consists of a main volcanic island and about nineteen uninhabited islets. Futuna and nearby Alofi were formerly known as the Hoorn Islands. Futuna, not to be confused with the Island of Futuna in Vanuatu, is mountainous, and because Alofi has no fresh-water supply, the small island remains without a permanent population. The climate is tropical, with a cyclone season between October and March.
^
Wallis was probably settled in the mid-1400s or 1500 by immigrants from Tonga, and rivalry between chiefs marked its early years. The first settlers on Futuna likely came from Samoa, and tradition holds that some inhabitants are descendants of crew members of a Marshall Islands ship that docked on Futuna early in the island's history. In 1616 Dutch mariners reached Futuna and Alofi, naming them the Hoorn Islands for a town in the Netherlands Captain Samuel Wallis of Britain came to Wallis in 1767, and he was followed by other Europeans in 1781 and 1791. Ongoing contact with Europeans began in the 1820s when many area whalers who came ashore for food and water remained as settlers. French missionaries began their work in the 1830s, and after initial hostilities and the murder of a priest on Futuna, Roman Catholicism was universally accepted on the islands. In 1842 local chiefs requested protection from the French government, and Wallis and Futuna became a French protectorate in 1887. Following a 1959 referendum to change the islands' status, Wallis and Futuna became an overseas territory of France in 1961.
~
WESTERN SAMOA
@
Most Western Samoans are of Polynesian descent, and a significant minority are of mixed Samoan and European heritage. Most of the population is Christian and practices a variety of faiths introduced by European missionaries and traders. Samoan and English are the principal languages.
#
The tropical climate of Western Samoa, which is composed of volcanic islands, is suited for agriculture--the country's chief economic support. Bananas, coconuts, and tropical fruits are the most important crops.
^
Polynesians settled the Samoan islands more than two thousand years ago. Dutch explorers visited the islands in the early 1700s, and English missionaries arrived in 1830. Rivalry between the islands' royal families increased, along with competition among the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany. In 1900 the United States annexed Eastern Samoa, and Germany obtained Western Samoa. By the end of World War I, New Zealand had gained control of Western Samoa. Growing demand for independence led to United Nations intervention and gradual steps toward self-government. The islands became fully independent in 1962. The nation maintains friendly relations with New Zealand and neighboring Pacific islands.
~
ANTARCTICA
@
Antarctica, which surrounds the South Pole, is the southernmost continent, the coldest place on earth, and one of the last frontiers. There are no native inhabitants, and its temporary population is made up mainly of scientists from various countries operating research stations.
#
Harsh climate and terrain have inhibited resource exploration and development. Antarctica's natural resources include coal, various ores, iron, offshore oil and natural gas. Fishing for krill, a marine protein source, is another activity. Crossed by several ranges collectively known as the Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica can be roughly divided into a mountainous western region and a larger eastern sector consisting of an icy plain rimmed by mountains. With its tip about 700 miles (1,127 km) from southern South America, the mountainous Antarctic Peninsula and its offshore islands jut northward. Nearly all Antarctica is ice covered, precipitation is minimal, and the continent is actually a desert.
^
In the 1770s, Captain James Cook of Britain set out in search of the southernmost continent and sailed completely around Antarctica without sighting land. Explorations beginning in 1820 resulted in sightings of the mainland or offshore islands by the British, Russians, and Americans. British explorer Sir James C. Ross conducted the first extensive explorations. After a lull of several decades, interest in Antarctica was renewed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Captain Robert F. Scott and Ernest Shackleton of Britain and Roald Amundsen of Norway led the renewed interest. Amundsen won the race to the South Pole in 1911. An Antarctic Treaty signed in 1959 permitted only peaceful scientific research to be conducted in the region. It also delayed settlement until 1989 of overlapping claims to the territory held by Norway, Australia, France, New Zealand, Chile, Britain, and Argentina. In 1988 several countries signed agreements to allow exploitation of Antarctica's natural resources.
~
FRENCH SOUTHERN AND ANTARCTIC TERRITORIES
KERGUELEN ISLANDS
@
The French Southern and Antarctic Territories consist of the Kerguelen Islands, the Crozet Islands, Amsterdam Island, St. Paul Island, and the Adelie Coast, an area in Antarctica. Scientists working at research and meteorological stations make up the population.
#
France has established research stations throughout the territories, including major bases in Port-aux-Francais in the Kerguelen Islands, on Possession Island in the Crozet archipelago, and on the Adelie Coast. Amsterdam Island is the site of a hospital and administrative offices as well as a scientific station. Coal, peat, and semiprecious stones have been found in the Kerguelen Islands, and cod and lobster are caught off the shores of St. Paul and Amsterdam islands. Throughout the territories seals, sea lions, and whales can be found. The largest island is mountainous Kerguelen Island; the rugged islands of the Crozet group are volcanic in origin; and Amsterdam, a volcanic island, lies near St. Paul, which is the site of hot springs. The climate of St. Paul and Amsterdam is milder than elsewhere in the territories.
^
The Portuguese discovered Amsterdam Island in 1522, the Dutch visited it in 1633, and France claimed it in 1843. Captain Marion-Dufresne discovered the islands of the Crozet archipelago in 1772, annexing them to France, and whalers and seal hunters visited the Crozets throughout the nineteenth century. Also in 1772, Frenchman Kerguelen-Tremarec came upon Kerguelen Island, naming it Desolation Island. In 1840 the French arrived on the Adelie Coast. The French Southern and Antarctic Territories are governed from Paris.
